Current Pediatric Reviews - Volume 21, Issue 1, 2025

Group A β-hemolytic Streptococcus (GABHS) is the leading bacterial cause of acute pharyngitis in children and adolescents worldwide.

This article aims to familiarize clinicians with the clinical manifestations, evaluation, diagnosis, and management of GABHS pharyngitis.

A search was conducted in December 2022 in PubMed Clinical Queries using the key term “group A β-hemolytic streptococcal pharyngitis”. This review covers mainly literature published in the previous ten years.

Children with GABHS pharyngitis typically present with an abrupt onset of fever, intense pain in the throat, pain on swallowing, an inflamed pharynx, enlarged and erythematous tonsils, a red and swollen uvula, enlarged tender anterior cervical lymph nodes. As clinical manifestations may not be specific, even experienced clinicians may have difficulties diagnosing GABHS pharyngitis solely based on epidemiologic or clinical grounds alone. Patients suspected of having GABHS pharyngitis should be confirmed by microbiologic testing (e.g., culture, rapid antigen detection test, molecular point-of-care test) of a throat swab specimen prior to the initiation of antimicrobial therapy. Microbiologic testing is generally unnecessary in patients with pharyngitis whose clinical and epidemiologic findings do not suggest GABHS. Clinical score systems such as the Centor score and McIssac score have been developed to help clinicians decide which patients should undergo diagnostic testing and reduce the unnecessary use of antimicrobials. Antimicrobial therapy should be initiated without delay once the diagnosis is confirmed. Oral penicillin V and amoxicillin remain the drugs of choice. For patients who have a non-anaphylactic allergy to penicillin, oral cephalosporin is an acceptable alternative. For patients with a history of immediate, anaphylactic-type hypersensitivity to penicillin, oral clindamycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin are acceptable alternatives.

Early diagnosis and antimicrobial treatment are recommended to prevent suppurative complications (e.g., cervical lymphadenitis, peritonsillar abscess) and non-suppurative complications (particularly rheumatic fever) as well as to reduce the severity of symptoms, to shorten the duration of the illness and to reduce disease transmission.

Current guidelines for neonatal resuscitation suggest the use of a laryngeal mask when ventilation with both facemask and endotracheal tube has failed in newborns weighing >2000 g or delivered ≥ 34 weeks of gestation age. Paediatric I-gel^® is one of the latest supraglottic airway management devices suitable for children and newborns. I-gel^® use was effective in guaranteeing adequate ventilation in patients with anatomic abnormalities in case of respiratory impairment or during surgical procedures after the induction of anaesthesia.

The purpose of our review was to evaluate the use and efficacy of I-gel^® in case of complicated intubations.

In July 2023, two authors of this paper independently conducted searches of the MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus databases without imposing any time constraints or other restrictions. Three case reports were included, each describing the use of I-gel^® device in difficult intubations in newborns with anatomical abnormalities.

No difficulties were reported in the insertion of the device, which was placed even by inexperienced clinicians.

The data collected highlighted the possibility of using I-gel^® not only as a rescue device after attempted and failed endotracheal placement but also as a first choice in selected patients. Studies on larger cohorts would be needed. Further research involving larger patient cohorts of multicentre NICUs is necessary to confirm the use of laryngeal masks in neonates weighing less than 2000 grams.

Submaximal field walking tests are easy to apply and low cost, but it is necessary to standardize their application, especially in the pediatric population. The feasibility and its use in patients with congenital heart disease have been studied. The goal of this study was to verify which are the submaximal field walking tests applied in the cardiopulmonary assessment of children and adolescents with CHD and to verify if they are being performed as recommended by the standardization protocols/guidelines.

Literature review through a search in six electronic databases, structured in PICO format, without date restrictions. Looking for studies that used submaximal field walking tests in children and adolescents with congenital heart disease aged 5 to 18 years. Methodological quality, effectiveness and safety and risk of bias were assessed.

Five studies met the eligibility criteria with a sample of 160 individuals with congenital heart disease, and all used the six-minute walk test. Note that different methodologies and modifications are used. Only the clinical trial showed good methodological quality.Four studies had low risk of bias and one study had moderate risk.

Although the six-minute walk test is the only test used as a field test found in our research, there is no standardization in the application of the test, making it difficult to compare the results. In this sense, reducing the limitations and heterogeneity in the application of the test will enable more concrete outcomes and facilitate their reproduction in clinical practice.

Antibiotic de-escalation therapy plays a vital role in reducing the risk of bacterial resistance across the globe. This study elucidates the significance, determinants, and outcomes pertaining to Antibiotic De-escalation (ADE). The ADE is acknowledged as a crucial component within Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs (ASPs). The proliferation of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria arises as an anticipated outcome of the extensive utilization of antibiotics, heightening researchers' apprehensions regarding this global challenge.

The primary objective of the study was to evaluate the usage of antibiotics in terms of clinical outcomes (re-admission within 30 days and therapy outcomes upon discharge), adverse events, duration of de-escalation, and duration of hospitalizations among pediatric patients admitted to a tertiary care hospital due to various infectious diseases.

A retrospective study was conducted during a four-month period, from January 2022 to April 2023, at a tertiary care facility in Ajman, United Arab Emirates. Participants included in this study were based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria.

A total of 200 pediatric records were screened. The majority of participants, accounting for 66.0%, were female, and 54.0% were classified as Arabs in terms of race. The mean age was 7.5 years (± 2.8). The most prevalent symptoms reported were fever (98%), cough (75%), and sore throat (73%). Male participants were more inclined to present with bacterial infections (88.2%) compared to viral infections (3.8%), bacterial and viral co-illnesses (2.5%), or parasitic infections (1.3%) at the time of admission. Regarding clinical outcomes, 27% of patients were readmitted with the same infection type, while 52% did not experience readmission. The analysis also included information on the number of patients within each antibiotic therapy duration category, alongside the mean duration of antibiotic de-escalation in hours with standard deviation (± SD). The statistical significance of these associations was assessed using P-values, revealing a significant relationship (P < 0.0001) between the duration of antibiotic therapy and the time required for antibiotic de-escalation.

The study's analysis revealed that individuals readmitted to the hospital, irrespective of whether they presented with the same or a different infection type, exhibited prolonged durations of antibiotic de-escalation. This observation underscores the potential influence of the patient's clinical trajectory and the necessity for adjunctive therapeutic interventions on the duration of antibiotic de-escalation.

Appendicitis is a common childhood condition that can be diagnostically challenging. Severe cases may necessitate support in the critical or intensive care unit. These “critical appendicitis diagnoses” have rarely been described.

We retrospectively reviewed the Paediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU) database of the Hong Kong Children’s Hospital and identified cases of suspected and confirmed appendicitis. Clinical features, radiologic findings and final diagnosis of each case were summarized and reported in this case series. We review six anonymized cases of appendicitis managed in a PICU to illustrate the different age spectrum and clinical manifestations of the condition. Rupture of the inflamed appendix, peritonitis and pancreatitis were some of the complications encountered. Crohn’s disease was found in one case as an underlying diagnosis. Also, one girl clinically diagnosed with appendicitis was found to be a case of ruptured hepatoblastoma with no appendicitis (i.e., pseudo-appendicitis).

Prompt diagnosis, surgical removal of the inflamed appendix, and use of appropriate antimicrobials when indicated are essential in reducing mortality and morbidity associated with severe appendicitis. Significant premorbid conditions such as acute myeloid leukemia, Mitochondrial Encephalopathy Lactic Acidosis Syndrome (MELAS), inflammatory bowel disease and complications may be present in patients needing intensive care as is illustrated in the present cases. Pseudo-appendicitis is an important differential diagnosis. Imaging is crucial and useful in establishing and confirming the diagnosis of appendicitis and pseudo-appendicitis in these PICU cases.

Riga-Fede disease (RFD) presents as oral mucosal ulceration in anatomical juxtaposition to sharp dental surfaces.

A 7-month-old healthy male presented to the pediatric dentist for an emergency appointment. His mother was concerned about episodic, recurrent, and excessive bleeding from his mouth for three weeks. She reported that her son would often wake up in “a pool of blood”. The pediatrician assessed the patient when oral bleeding first started and prescribed magic mouthwash. This did not resolve the problem. The mother then took the child to an urgent care clinic, where she was referred to a pediatric dentist. The pediatric dentist noted a sublingual traumatic, granulomatous ulcer on the ventral surface of the tongue, extending up to the tip of the tongue. The mandibular primary central incisors had recently erupted. The pediatric dentist established a clinical diagnosis of RFD. Incisal edges were smoothened with dental polishing tips on a slow-speed handpiece and topical fluoride varnish was applied to the teeth. The size of the ulceration decreased over two weeks. However, in three weeks, there was another bleeding episode. The pediatric dentist smoothened the incisal edges again, followed by a fluoride varnish application. Eight weeks after the initial dental intervention, the lesion resolved completely without further bleeding.

The details of this case report highlight the maternal concerns, interprofessional educational touchpoints, scope for interprofessional collaborative care, and noninvasive management of Riga-Fede disease.

In neurotypical patients, conservative dental management by smoothening sharp dental surfaces can resolve RFD. RFD should be differentiated from viral illnesses which present with oral ulcerations.

This interventional study aimed to assess the impact of combining probiotics with phototherapy compared to using phototherapy alone on bilirubin reduction in term neonates hospitalized in neonatal wards in a pediatric hospital in western Iran.

This clinical trial study included 150 term neonates with a gestational age of 37 to 42 weeks, birth weight of more than 2500 g, and diagnosed with neonatal jaundice. Patients were equally assigned to two groups of phototherapy (wavelength 420-450 nm) with oral probiotics (PediLact drop, 10 drops daily) and phototherapy alone through a simple random sampling method. Serum bilirubin levels (SBL) at the time of intervention, and 24, 48, and 72 hours later, duration of phototherapy, duration of hospitalization, and the need for blood transfusion were compared in the two groups. We used t-test and repeated analysis of variance to compare continuous variables. SPSS24 software was used to analyze the data. The significance level was set as 0.05.

There was no statistically significant difference found between the two groups regarding basic variables, gender, birth weight, gestational age, maternal age, and neonatal age at hospitalization time. On the first day of hospitalization, the mean serum bilirubin level (SBL) in the combinatory therapy group was 15.6 ± 1.7 mg/dl, while in the monotherapy group, it was 15.8 ± 1.6 mg/dl (p = 0.584). On the second day, the mean SBL in the combinatory therapy group was 11.2 ± 2.2, whereas in the monotherapy group, it was 12.4 ± 2.1. By the third day, these levels were 7.2 ± 0.9 and 7.8 ± 0.7, respectively, with a statistically significant difference between the two groups. Repeated analysis of variance testing confirmed a statistically significant decrease in serum bilirubin levels in both groups. The average length of hospital stay for the combinatory therapy group was 2.4 ± 0.5 days, compared to 2.8 ± 0.6 days in the phototherapy group (p = 0.001). In terms of phototherapy duration, the combinatory therapy group received treatment for 26.2 ± 9.9 hours, while the phototherapy group received it for 31.4 ± 10.3 hours (p = 0.001).

The findings of the present study indicate that incorporating oral probiotics into phototherapy for neonatal jaundice (icterus) treatment is associated with a reduction in phototherapy duration and hospital stay.

IRCT20120215009014N306

Omega-3 fatty acids (FAs) are essential long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) that are essential for optimal health and development.

The present study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of maternal fish oil (containing omega-3 LCPUFA) intake from 21^th week of pregnancy to 30 days postpartum for neurodevelopment and growth of infants at 9 and 12 months.

This was a follow-up study of a triple-blinded clinical trial. The study population was 9- month-old infants. Their mothers were randomly divided into two groups of 75 people with a 1:1 ratio to take one fish oil supplement or a placebo daily. The anthropometric indicators of infants at months 9 and 12 and neurodevelopment at month 12 by the ASQ questionnaire were measured. In the fish oil and placebo groups, respectively, 73 and 71 infants at nine months, as well as 71 and 69 at 12 months, were analyzed.

No statistically significant impact was observed following consuming omega-3 capsules on the neurodevelopmental domains, growth parameters, and the profile of maternal serum FAs (p > 0.05) except DHA. Neurodevelopmental problems were illustrated in one case in the intervention group and two cases in the placebo group.

Perinatal relatively low-dose omega-3 LCPUFAs supplements indicated no statistically significant impacts on the growth and neurodevelopment of 9- and 12-month-old infants in a population with low consumption of marine products. Further studies investigating the effect of higher doses of omega-3 LCPUFAs are suggested.

IRCT2013100914957N1