Skip to content
2000
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Current Cancer Therapy Reviews
  4. Volume 21, Issue 1
  5. Article
Volume 21, Issue 1
  • ISSN: 1573-3947
  • E-ISSN: 1875-6301

Abstract

Retinoblastoma is the most common pediatric ocular cancer. This cancer occurs due to malignancy in retinoblast cells, which are precursors of photoreceptors, horizontal cells, amacrine cells, muller cells, and retinal progenitor cells in the retina of the eye. Genetic correlation has been observed in most cases of retinoblastoma. It is caused due to the suppression or mutation of the retinoblastoma 1 gene (RB1 gene), which is located at the 14th band of both alleles of the 13th human chromosome. RB1 gene is a tumour suppressor gene responsible for regulating cell growth and controlling abnormal cell division. In the last two decades, as accurate identification of characteristic features of cancer cells at various stages of retinoblastoma has been made, we can now plan more advanced and personalized management of the disease due to improved and focused therapeutic effects of cryotherapy, thermotherapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgical interventions. These efforts can lead to a better survival rate with reduced damage to the non-cancerous cells in the eyeball, promoting better visual performance (better visual acuity and visual axis alignment). Based on studies published in PubMed and Google Scholar till 2023, current treatment options at various stages of retinoblastoma are reviewed to suggest the most promising treatment options. Based on this information, a clear treatment flowchart has been prepared. This review article can assist researchers, eye specialists, geneticists, and cancer specialists in determining the most promising method for treating retinoblastoma at various stages.

© 2025 Bentham Science Publishers
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/cctr/10.2174/0115733947245338240108011058
2024-01-23
2024-11-26

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/cctr/10.2174/0115733947245338240108011058
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. KoochakzadehL. HashemiH. PakzadR. HeydarianS. KhabazkhoobM. KhabazkhoobM. Epidemiological aspect of retinoblastoma in the world: A review of recent advance studies.Int. J. Ophthalmol.202316696296810.18240/ijo.2023.06.2037332560
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Cruz-GálvezC.C. Ordaz-FavilaJ.C. Villar-CalvoV.M. Cancino-MarentesM.E. Bosch-CantoV. Retinoblastoma: Review and new insights.Front. Oncol.20221296378010.3389/fonc.2022.96378036408154
     [Google Scholar]
  3. JainM. RojanapornD. ChawlaB. SundarG. GopalL. KhetanV. Retinoblastoma in Asia.Eye2019331879610.1038/s41433‑018‑0244‑730385881
     [Google Scholar]
  4. AertsI. Lumbroso-Le RouicL. Gauthier-VillarsM. BrisseH. DozF. DesjardinsL. Retinoblastoma.Orphanet J. Rare Dis.2006113110.1186/1750‑1172‑1‑3116934146
     [Google Scholar]
  5. ZhangY. WangY. HuangD. Correlation between Family RB1 gene pathogenic variant with clinical features and prognosis of retinoblastoma under 5 years old.Dis. Markers2021202111010.1155/2021/998102834336010
     [Google Scholar]
  6. DimarasH. CorsonT.W. CobrinikD. Retinoblastoma.Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers2015111502110.1038/nrdp.2015.2127189421
     [Google Scholar]
  7. VuralÖ. KayhanG. TarlanB. Clinical and genetic characteristics of retinoblastoma patients in a single center with four novel RB1 variants.Int. J. Ophthalmol.20231681274127910.18240/ijo.2023.08.1337602348
     [Google Scholar]
  8. LohmannD.R. GallieB.L. Retinoblastoma. AdamM.P. MirzaaG.M. PagonR.A. GeneReviews®. Seattle, WA.University of Washington, Seattle200019932023
     [Google Scholar]
  9. ChinnamM. GoodrichD.W. RB1, development, and cancer.Curr. Top. Dev. Biol.20119412916910.1016/B978‑0‑12‑380916‑2.00005‑X21295686
     [Google Scholar]
  10. RavishankarH. ManganiA.S. Phoebe MosesG.L. Serum exosomal miRNA as biomarkers for Retinoblastoma.Exp. Eye Res.202019910818410.1016/j.exer.2020.10818432795526
     [Google Scholar]
  11. KleinermanR.A. SchonfeldS.J. TuckerM.A. Sarcomas in hereditary retinoblastoma.Clin. Sarcoma Res.2012211510.1186/2045‑3329‑2‑1523036192
     [Google Scholar]
  12. DuW. SearleJ. The rb pathway and cancer therapeutics.Curr. Drug Targets200910758158910.2174/13894500978868039219601762
     [Google Scholar]
  13. TalluriS. DickF.A. Regulation of transcription and chromatin structure by pRB: Here, there and everywhere.Cell Cycle201211173189319810.4161/cc.2126322895179
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Vélez-CruzR. JohnsonD. The Retinoblastoma (RB) Tumor Suppressor: Pushing Back against Genome Instability on Multiple Fronts.Int. J. Mol. Sci.2017188177610.3390/ijms1808177628812991
     [Google Scholar]
  15. O’BrienJ.M. Retinoblastoma: Clinical presentation and the role of neuroimaging.AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.200122342642811237961
     [Google Scholar]
  16. JijelavaK.P. GrossniklausH.E. Diffuse anterior retinoblastoma: A review.Saudi J. Ophthalmol.201327313513910.1016/j.sjopt.2013.06.00624227977
     [Google Scholar]
  17. IshaqH. PatelB.C. Retinoblastoma. In: StatPearls.Treasure Island, FLStatPearls Publishing2023
     [Google Scholar]
  18. CastelaG. ProvidênciaJ. MonteiroM. Treatment of advanced retinoblastoma in children evacuated from low-income countries: experience from a national referral center in portugal.Clin. Ophthalmol.2021154765477310.2147/OPTH.S34391934992338
     [Google Scholar]
  19. FabianI.D. ReddyA. SagooM.S. Classification and staging of retinoblastoma.Community Eye Health201831101111329915461
     [Google Scholar]
  20. DasD. BhattacharjeeK. BarthakurS. A new rosette in retinoblastoma.Indian J. Ophthalmol.201462563864110.4103/0301‑4738.12978624881618
     [Google Scholar]
  21. SinghL. KashyapS. Update on pathology of retinoblastoma.Int. J. Ophthalmol.201811122011201630588438
     [Google Scholar]
  22. FabianI.D. AbdallahE. AbdullahiS.U. The global retinoblastoma outcome study: A prospective, cluster-based analysis of 4064 patients from 149 countries.Lancet Glob. Health2022108e1128e114010.1016/S2214‑109X(22)00250‑935839812
     [Google Scholar]
  23. ShieldsC.L. Ancona-LezamaD. DalvinL.A. Modern treatment of retinoblastoma: A 2020 review.Indian J. Ophthalmol.202068112356236510.4103/ijo.IJO_721_2033120616
     [Google Scholar]
  24. ZhaoJ. FengZ. LeungG. GallieB.L. Retinoblastoma survival following primary enucleation by AJCC staging.Cancers20211324624010.3390/cancers1324624034944860
     [Google Scholar]
  25. DalvinL.A. ShieldsC.L. Recent treatment of retinoblastoma: A 2021 review.Indian J. Ophthalmol.2021751124162426
     [Google Scholar]
  26. PandeyA.N. Retinoblastoma: An overview.Saudi J. Ophthalmol.201428431031510.1016/j.sjopt.2013.11.00125473349
     [Google Scholar]
  27. YunJ. LiY. XuC.T. PanB.R. Epidemiology and Rb1 gene of retinoblastoma.Int. J. Ophthalmol.20114110310922553621
     [Google Scholar]
  28. YanıkÖ. GündüzK. YavuzK. TaçyıldızN. ÜnalE. Chemotherapy in retinoblastoma: Current approaches.Türk Oftalmoloji Dergisi201545625926710.4274/tjo.0688827800245
     [Google Scholar]
  29. ShieldsC.L. FulcoE.M. AriasJ.D. Retinoblastoma frontiers with intravenous, intra-arterial, periocular, and intravitreal chemotherapy.Eye201327225326410.1038/eye.2012.17522995941
     [Google Scholar]
  30. ReddyA. JainM. KhetanV. Managing and treating intraocular retinoblastoma.Community Eye Health201831101141629915462
     [Google Scholar]
  31. GrevenC.M. TasmanW. Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment following cryotherapy in retinopathy of prematurity.Arch. Ophthalmol.198910771017101810.1001/archopht.1989.010700200790342751455
     [Google Scholar]
  32. FraunfelderF.W. Liquid nitrogen cryotherapy for surface eye disease (an AOS thesis).Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc200810630124
     [Google Scholar]
  33. KwakK. YuB. LewandowskiR.J. KimD.H. Recent progress in cryoablation cancer therapy and nanoparticles mediated cryoablation.Theranostics20221252175220410.7150/thno.6753035265206
     [Google Scholar]
  34. ChawlaB. JainA. AzadR. Conservative treatment modalities in retinoblastoma.Indian J. Ophthalmol.201361947948510.4103/0301‑4738.11942424104705
     [Google Scholar]
  35. ShehabN. Al-SabawiN. AlkhalidiE. Influence of an 810-nm diode laser on the temperature changes of the external root surface: An in vitro study.J. Int. Soc. Prev. Community Dent.202010444545110.4103/jispcd.JISPCD_216_2033042886
     [Google Scholar]
  36. SufaruI.G. MartuM.A. LuchianI. The effects of 810 nm diode laser and indocyanine green on periodontal parameters and hba1c in patients with periodontitis and type II diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled study.Diagnostics2022127161410.3390/diagnostics1207161435885519
     [Google Scholar]
  37. HuoQ. YangQ. GorczynskiR.M. LiT. Oncological minimally invasive surgery.J. Oncol.201920191210.1155/2019/190329731636664
     [Google Scholar]
  38. HonavarS.G. SenM. Circumscribed choroidal hemangioma: An overview of clinical manifestation, diagnosis and management.Indian J. Ophthalmol.201967121965197310.4103/ijo.IJO_2036_1931755430
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Terelak-BorysB. SkoniecznaK. Grabska-LiberekI. Ocular ischemic syndrome – a systematic review.Med. Sci. Monit.2012188RA138RA14410.12659/MSM.88326022847215
     [Google Scholar]
  40. ChenQ. ZhangB. DongY. Comparison between intravenous chemotherapy and intra-arterial chemotherapy for retinoblastoma: A meta-analysis.BMC Cancer201818148610.1186/s12885‑018‑4406‑629703164
     [Google Scholar]
  41. SilveraV.M. GuerinJ.B. BrinjikjiW. DalvinL.A. Retinoblastoma: What the Neuroradiologist Needs to Know.AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol.202142461862610.3174/ajnr.A694933509920
     [Google Scholar]
  42. MeelR. RadhakrishnanV. BakhshiS. Current therapy and recent advances in the management of retinoblastoma.Indian J. Med. Paediatr. Oncol.2012332808810.4103/0971‑5851.9973122988349
     [Google Scholar]
  43. ShieldsC.L. MashayekhiA. CaterJ. ShelilA. MeadowsA.T. ShieldsJ.A. Chemoreduction for retinoblastoma. Analysis of tumor control and risks for recurrence in 457 tumors.Am. J. Ophthalmol.2004138332933710.1016/j.ajo.2004.04.03215747743
     [Google Scholar]
  44. FrancisJ.H. BrodieS.E. MarrB. ZaborE.C. Mondesire-CrumpI. AbramsonD.H. Efficacy and toxicity of intravitreous chemotherapy for retinoblastoma: Four-year experience.Ophthalmology2017124448849510.1016/j.ophtha.2016.12.01528089679
     [Google Scholar]
  45. GrümmeL. BiewaldE. ReschkeM. Comparing efficacy and side effects of two systemic chemotherapy regimens for eye‐preserving therapy in children with retinoblastoma.Pediatr. Blood Cancer2022692e2936210.1002/pbc.2936234606174
     [Google Scholar]
  46. ShieldsCL BasZ TadepalliS Long-term (20-year) realworld outcomes of intravenous chemotherapy (chemoreduction) for retinoblastoma in 964 eyes of 554 patients at a single centre.Br J Ophthalmol202010411bjophthalmol-2019-31557210.1136/bjophthalmol‑2019‑31557232051141
     [Google Scholar]
  47. RishiP. SharmaT. SharmaM. Intra-arterial chemotherapy for retinoblastoma: Two-year results from tertiary eye-care center in India.Indian J. Ophthalmol.201765431131510.4103/ijo.IJO_843_1628513496
     [Google Scholar]
  48. ManjandavidaF. ShieldsC.L. StathopoulosC. ZhangJ. HonavarS.G. Intra-arterial chemotherapy in retinoblastoma – A paradigm change.Indian J. Ophthalmol.201967674075410.4103/ijo.IJO_866_1931124482
     [Google Scholar]
  49. PocztaA. RogalskaA. MarczakA. Treatment of multiple myeloma and the role of melphalan in the era of modern therapies—current research and clinical approaches.J. Clin. Med.2021109184110.3390/jcm1009184133922721
     [Google Scholar]
  50. BrennanR.C. QaddoumiI. MaoS. Ocular salvage and vision preservation using a topotecan-based regimen for advanced intraocular retinoblastoma.J. Clin. Oncol.2017351727710.1200/JCO.2016.69.299628034080
     [Google Scholar]
  51. SaidA.M.A. AlyM.G. RashedH.O. RadyA.M. Safety and efficacy of posterior sub-Tenon’s carboplatin injection versus intravitreal melphalan therapy in the management of retinoblastoma with secondary vitreous seeds.Int. J. Ophthalmol.201811344545529600179
     [Google Scholar]
  52. MunierF.L. MosimannP. PuccinelliF. First-line intra-arterial versus intravenous chemotherapy in unilateral sporadic group D retinoblastoma: Evidence of better visual outcomes, ocular survival and shorter time to success with intra-arterial delivery from retrospective review of 20 years of treatment.Br. J. Ophthalmol.201710181086109310.1136/bjophthalmol‑2016‑30929827927678
     [Google Scholar]
  53. ZhengY. FroehlerM.T. FriedmanD.L. DanielsA.B. Intra-arterial chemotherapy as primary treatment for cavitary retinoblastoma: Excellent response in eight tumors.Ophthalmol. Retina20215547948510.1016/j.oret.2020.08.01132853834
     [Google Scholar]
  54. RishiP. AgarwalA. ChatterjeeP. Intra-arterial chemotherapy for retinoblastoma: Four-year results from tertiary center in India.Ocul. Oncol. Pathol.202061667310.1159/00050001032002408
     [Google Scholar]
  55. GanapathyV. MogheP.V. RothC.M. Targeting tumor metastases: Drug delivery mechanisms and technologies.J. Control. Release201521921522310.1016/j.jconrel.2015.09.04226409123
     [Google Scholar]
  56. DardiotisE. AloizouA.M. MarkoulaS. Cancer-associated stroke: Pathophysiology, detection and management (Review).Int. J. Oncol.201954377979610.3892/ijo.2019.466930628661
     [Google Scholar]
  57. KarthikeyanK. KumarA. Madarosis: A marker of many Maladies.Int. J. Trichology20124131810.4103/0974‑7753.9607922628984
     [Google Scholar]
  58. ShieldsC.L. ManjandavidaF.P. The role of intravitreal chemotherapy for retinoblastoma.Indian J. Ophthalmol.201563214114510.4103/0301‑4738.15439025827545
     [Google Scholar]
  59. YuM.D. DalvinL.A. WelchR.J. ShieldsC.L. Precision intravitreal chemotherapy for localized vitreous seeding of retinoblastoma.Ocul. Oncol. Pathol.20195428428910.1159/00049143231367592
     [Google Scholar]
  60. WilhelmH. SchabetM. The diagnosis and treatment of optic neuritis.Dtsch. Arztebl. Int.20151123761662510.3238/arztebl.2015.061626396053
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Varela-FernándezR. Díaz-ToméV. Luaces-RodríguezA. Drug delivery to the posterior segment of the eye: Biopharmaceutic and pharmacokinetic considerations.Pharmaceutics202012326910.3390/pharmaceutics1203026932188045
     [Google Scholar]
  62. AlahmadiG. MaktabiA.M.Y. SesmaG. AlmesferS. Ocular survival following intravitreal melphalan as adjuvant treatment for vitreous retinoblastoma seeding.Clin. Ophthalmol.2023171789180010.2147/OPTH.S41737037377999
     [Google Scholar]
  63. MunierF.L. MoulinA. GaillardM.C. Intracameral chemotherapy for globe salvage in retinoblastoma with secondary anterior chamber invasion.Ophthalmology2018125461561710.1016/j.ophtha.2017.11.01029208450
     [Google Scholar]
  64. KalikiS. Aqueous seeding in intraocular retinoblastoma: A review.Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol.202149660661410.1111/ceo.1396434185374
     [Google Scholar]
  65. ShieldsC.L. CaterJ. ShieldsJ.A. Combined plaque radiotherapy and transpupillary thermotherapy for choroidal melanoma: tumor control and treatment complications in 270 consecutive patients.Arch. Ophthalmol.2002120793394010.1001/archopht.120.7.93312096964
     [Google Scholar]
  66. NaseripourM. MirshahiR. KasraeiH. SedaghatA. AzimiF. Spotlight on targeted chemotherapy in retinoblastoma: Safety, efficacy, and patient outcomes.OncoTargets Ther.2022151545156110.2147/OTT.S37087836579184
     [Google Scholar]
  67. MunierF.L. GaillardM.C. DecembriniS. BongiovanniM. Beck-PopovicM. Intracameral Chemotherapy (Melphalan) for aqueous seeding in retinoblastoma: bicameral injection technique and related toxicity in a pilot case study.Ocul. Oncol. Pathol.20173214915510.1159/00045361728868287
     [Google Scholar]
  68. SchirrmacherV. From chemotherapy to biological therapy: A review of novel concepts to reduce the side effects of systemic cancer treatment (Review).Int. J. Oncol.201854240741910.3892/ijo.2018.466130570109
     [Google Scholar]
  69. KimJ.Y. ParkY. Treatment of retinoblastoma: The role of external beam radiotherapy.Yonsei Med. J.20155661478149110.3349/ymj.2015.56.6.147826446627
     [Google Scholar]
  70. KokaK. VermaA. DwarakanathB.S. PapineniR.V.L. Technological advancements in external beam radiation therapy (EBRT): An indispensable tool for cancer treatment.Cancer Manag. Res.2022141421142910.2147/CMAR.S35174435431581
     [Google Scholar]
  71. DietrichA. KoiL. ZöphelK. Improving external beam radiotherapy by combination with internal irradiation.Br. J. Radiol.20158810512015004210.1259/bjr.2015004225782328
     [Google Scholar]
  72. NuzziR. TrossarelloM. BartonciniS. Ocular complications after radiation therapy: An observational study.Clin. Ophthalmol.2020143153316610.2147/OPTH.S26329133116366
     [Google Scholar]
  73. SountoulidesP. KoletsasN. KikidakisD. PaschalidisK. SofikitisN. Secondary malignancies following radiotherapy for prostate cancer.Ther. Adv. Urol.20102311912510.1177/175628721037446221789089
     [Google Scholar]
  74. WongJ.R. MortonL.M. TuckerM.A. Risk of subsequent malignant neoplasms in long-term hereditary retinoblastoma survivors after chemotherapy and radiotherapy.J. Clin. Oncol.201432293284329010.1200/JCO.2013.54.784425185089
     [Google Scholar]
  75. KalikiS. How to do an enucleation for retinoblastoma.Community Eye Health201831101202229915465
     [Google Scholar]
  76. ShomeD. HonavarS.G. RaizadaK. RaizadaD. Implant and prosthesis movement after enucleation: A randomized controlled trial.Ophthalmology201011781638164410.1016/j.ophtha.2009.12.03520417565
     [Google Scholar]
  77. ChinK. MargolinC.B. FingerP.T. Early ocular prosthesis insertion improves quality of life after enucleation.Optometry2006772717510.1016/j.optm.2005.12.01216476649
     [Google Scholar]
  78. SchaiquevichP. FrancisJ.H. CancelaM.B. CarcabosoA.M. ChantadaG.L. AbramsonD.H. Treatment of retinoblastoma: What is the latest and what is the future.Front. Oncol.20221282233010.3389/fonc.2022.82233035433448
     [Google Scholar]
  79. GorjiM.A.H. FarokhfarA. Ahmadzadeh-AmiriA. SheikhrezaeeM.R. AgaeiN. Common causes of eye enucleation among patients.J. Nat. Sci. Biol. Med.20178215015310.4103/0976‑9668.21000628781478
     [Google Scholar]
  80. LohmannD.R. GallieB.L. Retinoblastoma. FeldmanJ. MirzaaG.M. PagonR.A., et al. GeneReviews.Adam, MP2000[updated 2023 Sep 21]
     [Google Scholar]
  81. HonavarS.G. ShieldsC.L. ShieldsJ.A. DemirciH. NaduvilathT.J. Intraocular surgery after treatment of retinoblastoma.Arch. Ophthalmol.2001119111613162110.1001/archopht.119.11.161311709011
     [Google Scholar]
  82. HamelP. HeonE. GallieB.L. BudningA.S. Focal therapy in the management of retinoblastoma: When to start and when to stop.J. AAPOS20004633433710.1067/mpa.2000.10790211124666
     [Google Scholar]
  83. ChenQ. ZhangB. DongY. Intra-arterial chemotherapy as primary or secondary treatment for infants diagnosed with advanced retinoblastoma before 3 months of age.BMC Cancer201919169310.1186/s12885‑019‑5844‑531307410
     [Google Scholar]
  84. MaaniE.V. MaaniC.V. Radiation Therapy. In: StatPearls.Treasure Island, FLStatPearls Publishing2022
     [Google Scholar]
  85. DessieG. Derbew MollaM. ShibabawT. AyelignB. Role of stem-cell transplantation in leukemia treatment.Stem Cells Cloning202013677710.2147/SCCAA.S26288032982314
     [Google Scholar]
  86. BerryJ.L. KogachiK. MurphreeA.L. JubranR. KimJ.W. A review of recurrent retinoblastoma: Children’s hospital los angeles classification and treatment guidelines.Int. Ophthalmol. Clin.2019592657510.1097/IIO.000000000000026930908280
     [Google Scholar]
  87. ShieldsC.L. HonavarS.G. MeadowsA.T. Chemoreduction plus focal therapy for retinoblastoma: Factors predictive of need for treatment with external beam radiotherapy or enucleation11InternetAdvance publication at ajo.com April 8, 2002.Am. J. Ophthalmol.2002133565766410.1016/S0002‑9394(02)01348‑X11992863
     [Google Scholar]
  88. ShieldsC. ShieldsJ.A. CaterJ. OthmaneI. SinghA.D. MicailyB. Plaque radiotherapy for retinoblastoma Long-term tumor control and treatment complications in 208 tumors.Ophthalmology2001108112116212110.1016/S0161‑6420(01)00797‑711713089
     [Google Scholar]
  89. HoangD.M. PhamP.T. BachT.Q. Stem cell-based therapy for human diseases.Signal Transduct. Target. Ther.20227127210.1038/s41392‑022‑01134‑435933430
     [Google Scholar]
  90. WattS. Clinical decision‐making in the context of chronic illness.Health Expect.20003161610.1046/j.1369‑6513.2000.00076.x11281907
     [Google Scholar]
  91. JimmyB. JoseJ. Patient medication adherence: Measures in daily practice.Oman Med. J.201126315515910.5001/omj.2011.3822043406
     [Google Scholar]
  92. ThoenyH.C. RossB.D. Predicting and monitoring cancer treatment response with diffusion‐weighted MRI.J. Magn. Reson. Imaging201032121610.1002/jmri.2216720575076
     [Google Scholar]
  93. SheltonR.C. Steps following attainment of remission: Discontinuation of antidepressant therapy.Prim. Care Companion J. Clin. Psychiatry20013416817415014601
     [Google Scholar]
  94. AbramsonD.H. BeaversonK. SanganiP. Screening for retinoblastoma: Presenting signs as prognosticators of patient and ocular survival.Pediatrics200311261248125510.1542/peds.112.6.124814654593
     [Google Scholar]
  95. FabiusA.W.M. van Hoefen WijsardM. van LeeuwenF.E. MollA.C. Subsequent malignant neoplasms in retinoblastoma survivors.Cancers2021136120010.3390/cancers1306120033801943
     [Google Scholar]
  96. CastilloJ.J. VincentM. JusticeE. Diagnosis and management of hyponatremia in cancer patients.Oncologist201217675676510.1634/theoncologist.2011‑040022618570
     [Google Scholar]
  97. BrookI. Late side effects of radiation treatment for head and neck cancer.Radiat. Oncol. J.2020382849210.3857/roj.2020.0021333012151
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/cctr/10.2174/0115733947245338240108011058
Loading
Present Scenario and Future Prospects in the Management of Retinoblastoma: A Review
Curr Cancer Ther Rev 21, 23 (2025); https://doi.org/10.2174/0115733947245338240108011058
/content/journals/cctr/10.2174/0115733947245338240108011058
/content/journals/cctr/10.2174/0115733947245338240108011058
Loading

Data & Media loading...


  • Article Type:     Review Article
Keyword(s): chemotherapy; cryotherapy; ocular carcinoma; progenitor cells; RB genes; retinoblast cells; Retinoblastoma; thermotherapy, radiotherapy

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test