Skip to content
2000
image of Comprehensive PRISMA Based Systematic Review: Exploring the Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Profile and Clinical aspects of Panax ginseng

Abstract

Introduction: Ginseng, a perennial herb belonging to the Araliaceae family, is renowned for its traditional and folk uses. The Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer species is predominantly found in Asian countries, including Japan, China, and Korea.

Materials and Methods: This manuscript offers valuable insights into the cultivation, collection, morphology, phytochemistry, pharmacological properties, and clinical studies of Ginseng. The data was meticulously gathered from diverse electronic resources, such as PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science, spanning from 1963 to 2023.

Results: Ginseng contains various bioactive components, including carbohydrates, polyacetylenic alcohols, polysaccharides, ginsenosides, peptides, vitamins, and fatty acids. The biological attributes of ginsenosides, which include anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities, render them especially remarkable.

Conclusion: This manuscript comprehensively explores the versatile therapeutic applications of ginseng in the treatment of various types of cancers.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266344493241014082257
2024-10-18
2024-12-03
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. Santacroce L. Topi S. Haxhirexha K. Hidri S. Charitos I.A. Bottalico L. Medicine and healing in the pre-Socratic thought-a brief analysis of magic and rationalism in ancient herbal therapy. Endocr. Metabol. Immune Disord. Drug Targ. 2021 21 2 282 287 10.2174/1871530320666200508113728
    [Google Scholar]
  2. Petrovska B. Historical review of medicinal plants′ usage. Pharmacogn. Rev. 2012 6 11 1 5 10.4103/0973‑7847.95849 22654398
    [Google Scholar]
  3. Santacroce L. Bottalico L. Haxhirexha K. Topi S. Charitos I.A. Pre-chemistry concepts and medical therapy among ancient physicians through the pre-socratic philosophers. Endocr. Metabol. Immune Disord. Drug Targ. 2020 20 9 1470 1477 10.2174/1871530320666200508115041
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Zhang H. Abid S. Ahn J.C. Mathiyalagan R. Kim Y.J. Yang D.C. Wang Y. Characteristics of Panax ginseng cultivars in Korea and China. Molecules 2020 25 11 2635 10.3390/molecules25112635 32517049
    [Google Scholar]
  5. Li Z. Wang Y. Xu Q. Ma J. Li X. Tian Y. Wen Y. Chen T. Ginseng and health outcomes: an umbrella review. Front. Pharmacol. 2023 14 1069268 10.3389/fphar.2023.1069268 37465522
    [Google Scholar]
  6. Yun T.K. Brief introduction of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. J. Korean Med. Sci. 2001 16 Suppl Suppl. S3 S5 10.3346/jkms.2001.16.S.S3 11748372
    [Google Scholar]
  7. Coates P.M. Paul M.C. Blackman M. Blackman M.R. Cragg G.M. Levine M. White J.D. Moss J. Encyclopedia of Dietary Supplements (Online). CRC press 2004 10.1201/b13959
    [Google Scholar]
  8. Ginseng (Panax ginseng) Cultivation and agrotechnology. Available from: https://library.ihbt.res.in/Institute%20Brochures/Ginseng%20(Panax%20ginseng)%20Cultivation%20and%20agritechnology.pdf(accessed on 2-10-2024)
  9. Shahrajabian M.H. Sun W. Cheng Q. A review of ginseng species in different regions as a multipurpose herb in traditional Chinese medicine, modern herbology and pharmacological science. J. Med. Plants Res. 2019 13 10 213 226
    [Google Scholar]
  10. Szczuka D. Nowak A. Zakłos-Szyda M. Kochan E. Szymańska G. Motyl I. Blasiak J. American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) as a source of bioactive phytochemicals with pro-health properties. Nutrients 2019 11 5 1041 10.3390/nu11051041 31075951
    [Google Scholar]
  11. Chung Y.Y. Chung C.M. Jo J.S. Agronomic Characteristics and Chemical Component of Hybrid between Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer and Panax quinquefolius L. J. Ginseng Res. 2003 27 4 183 187 10.5142/JGR.2003.27.4.183
    [Google Scholar]
  12. Xu J.D. Mao Q. Shen H. Zhu L.Y. Li S.L. Yan R. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with photo-diode array and quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometry based chemical profiling approach to evaluate the influence of preparation methods on the holistic quality of Qiong-Yu-Gao, a traditional complex herbal medicine. J. Chromatogr. A 2013 1304 154 168 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.07.023 23880467
    [Google Scholar]
  13. Cruse-Sanders J.M. Hamrick J.L. Genetic diversity in harvested and protected populations of wild American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae). Am. J. Bot. 2004 91 4 540 548 10.3732/ajb.91.4.540 21653409
    [Google Scholar]
  14. Jia L. Zhao Y. Current evaluation of the millennium phytomedicine--ginseng (I): etymology, pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, market and regulations. Curr. Med. Chem. 2009 16 19 2475 2484 10.2174/092986709788682146 19601793
    [Google Scholar]
  15. Qin Z. Jia C. Liao D. Chen X. Li X. Comparison of serum metabolite changes of radiated mice administered with Panax quinquefolium from different cultivation regions using UPLC-Q/TOF-MS based metabolomic approach. Molecules 2018 23 5 1014 10.3390/molecules23051014 29701672
    [Google Scholar]
  16. Kang K.H. Ginsenoside concentration and chemical component as affected by harvestin time of four-year ginseng root. Hangug Jagmul Haghoeji 2002 47 3 216 220
    [Google Scholar]
  17. Ratan Z.A. Haidere M.F. Hong Y.H. Park S.H. Lee J.O. Lee J. Cho J.Y. Pharmacological potential of ginseng and its major component ginsenosides. J. Ginseng Res. 2021 45 2 199 210 10.1016/j.jgr.2020.02.004 33841000
    [Google Scholar]
  18. Ovodov Y.S. Solov’eva T.F. Polysaccharides ofPanax ginseng. Chem. Nat. Compd. 1966 2 5 243 245 10.1007/BF00566981
    [Google Scholar]
  19. Tomoda M. Takeda K. Shimizu N. Gonda R. Ohara N. Takada K. Hirabayashi K. Characterization of two acidic polysaccharides having immunological activities from the root of Panax ginseng. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 1993 16 1 22 25 10.1248/bpb.16.22 8369746
    [Google Scholar]
  20. Baek S.H. Lee J.G. Park S.Y. Bae O.N. Kim D.H. Park J.H. Pectic polysaccharides from Panax ginseng as the antirotavirus principals in ginseng. Biomacromolecules 2010 11 8 2044 2052 10.1021/bm100397p 20597500
    [Google Scholar]
  21. Wan D. Jiao L. Yang H. Liu S. Structural characterization and immunological activities of the water-soluble oligosaccharides isolated from the Panax ginseng roots. Planta 2012 235 6 1289 1297 10.1007/s00425‑011‑1574‑x 22183124
    [Google Scholar]
  22. Ru W. Wang D. Xu Y. He X. Sun Y.E. Qian L. Zhou X. Qin Y. Chemical constituents and bioactivities of Panax ginseng (CA Mey.). Drug Discov. Ther. 2015 9 23 32
    [Google Scholar]
  23. Park J.D. Rhee D.K. Lee Y.H. Biological activities and chemistry of saponins from Panax ginseng CA Meyer. Phytochem. Rev. 2005 4 2-3 159 175 10.1007/s11101‑005‑2835‑8
    [Google Scholar]
  24. Ryu J.H. Park J.H. Eun J.H. Jung J.H. Sohn D.H. A dammarane glycoside from Korean red ginseng. Phytochemistry 1997 44 5 931 933 10.1016/S0031‑9422(96)00661‑9 9214776
    [Google Scholar]
  25. Han B.H. Park M.H. Han Y.N. Woo L.K. Alkaloidal components ofPanax ginseng. Arch. Pharm. Res. 1986 9 1 21 23 10.1007/BF02857702
    [Google Scholar]
  26. Han Y.N. Ryu S.Y. Han B.H. Woo L.K. Spinacine fromPanax ginseng. Arch. Pharm. Res. 1987 10 4 258 259 10.1007/BF02857750
    [Google Scholar]
  27. Park J.D. Kim M.W. Yoo S.J. Wee J.J. Chemical studies on the ether-soluble alkaloidal fraction of Panax ginseng. Isolation of 1-carbobutoxy-$\beta $-carboline and l-carbomethoxy-$\beta $-carboline. Arch. pharmacal research. 1987 10 3 197 199
    [Google Scholar]
  28. Park J.D. Kim M.W. Yoo S.J. Wee J.J. A thiazole and two β-carboline constitutents fromPanax ginseng. Arch. Pharm. Res. 1988 11 1 52 55 10.1007/BF02884768
    [Google Scholar]
  29. Matsuura H. Hirao Y. Yoshida S. Kunihiro K. Fuwa T. Kasai R. Tanaka O. Study of red ginseng: New glucosides and a note on the occurrence of maltol. Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo) 1984 32 11 4674 4677 10.1248/cpb.32.4674
    [Google Scholar]
  30. Han B.H. Park M.H. Han Y.N. Isolation of isomaltol-α-d-glucopyranoside1 and ketopropyl-α-d-glucopyranoside2 from Korean red ginseng. Arch. Pharm. Res. 1985 8 4 257 260 10.1007/BF02856500
    [Google Scholar]
  31. Han B.H. Park M.H. Woo L.K. Woo W.S. Han Y.N. Antioxidant Components of Korean Ginseng. Korean Biochem. J. 1979 12 33
    [Google Scholar]
  32. Han B.H. Park M.H. Han Y.N. Studies on the antioxidant components of Korean ginseng (III). Arch. Pharm. Res. 1981 4 1 53 58 10.1007/BF02856441
    [Google Scholar]
  33. Ahn Y.N. Lee Y.S. Choung M.G. Choi K.J. Kang K.H. Ginsenoside contentration and chemical component as affected by harvest time of four-year Ginseng. Hangug Jagmul Haghoeji 2002 47 216 220
    [Google Scholar]
  34. Ko S.R. Choi K.J. Kim H.J. Comparison of proximate composition, mineral nutrient, amino acid and free sugar contents of several Panax species. Korean Journal of Ginseng Science. Korea Republic 1996
    [Google Scholar]
  35. Sohn K.M. Cho Y.J. Choi C. Sung T.S. Lee K.S. Lipids and free sugar composition in ginseng classified by years. Journal of the Korean Agricultural Chemical Society. Korea R. 1988
    [Google Scholar]
  36. Wang J. Zhang L. Zhao Y. Chen W. Yang Q. Wang Y. Volatile oil contents and their variation law of RADIX ET RHIZOMA GINSENG in Changbai Mountain areas. Med. Plant 2011 2 3 40 51
    [Google Scholar]
  37. Xia P. Li J. Wang R. Zhang Y. Guo H. Yan X. Liu Y. Liang Z. Comparative study on volatile oils of four Panax genus species in Southeast Asia by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015 74 478 484 10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.05.059
    [Google Scholar]
  38. Ko S.R. Choi K.J. Kim H.J. Comparison of proximate composition, mineral nutrient, amino acid and free sugar contents of several Panax species. Korean Journal of Ginseng Science. Korea Republic 1996
    [Google Scholar]
  39. Shin J.Y. Park H.J. Lim S.C. Jung W.T. Quantitative comparison of ginsenosides and nitrogen compounds in Korean ginsengs and related origin. Korean J. Pharmacogn. 1996 27 1 6 14
    [Google Scholar]
  40. Lee J.W. Do J.H. Current studies on browning reaction products and acidic polysaccharide in Korean red ginseng. J. Ginseng Res. 2006 30 1 41 48 10.5142/JGR.2006.30.1.041
    [Google Scholar]
  41. Washida D. Kitanaka S. Determination of polyacetylenes and ginsenosides in Panax species using high performance liquid chromatography. Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo) 2003 51 11 1314 1317 10.1248/cpb.51.1314 14600381
    [Google Scholar]
  42. Xiang Y.Z. Shang H.C. Gao X.M. Zhang B.L. A Comparison of the ancient use of ginseng in traditional Chinese medicine with modern pharmacological experiments and clinical trials. Phytother. Res. 2008 22 7 851 858 10.1002/ptr.2384 18567057
    [Google Scholar]
  43. Liu J.H. Lee C.S. Leung K.M. Yan Z.K. Shen B.H. Zhao Z.Z. Jiang Z.H. Quantification of two polyacetylenes in Radix Ginseng and roots of related Panax species using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometric method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007 55 22 8830 8835 10.1021/jf070735o 17722935
    [Google Scholar]
  44. Park J. Cho J. Anti-inflammatory effects of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng and their structural analogs. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2009 8 16
    [Google Scholar]
  45. Im D.S. Pro-resolving effect of ginsenosides as an anti-inflammatory mechanism of Panax ginseng. Biomolecules 2020 10 3 444 10.3390/biom10030444 32183094
    [Google Scholar]
  46. Kim J.H. Yi Y.S. Kim M.Y. Cho J.Y. Role of ginsenosides, the main active components of Panax ginseng, in inflammatory responses and diseases. J. Ginseng Res. 2017 41 4 435 443 10.1016/j.jgr.2016.08.004 29021688
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Han S.Y. Kim J. Kim E. Kim S.H. Seo D.B. Kim J.H. Shin S.S. Cho J.Y. AKT-targeted anti-inflammatory activity of Panax ginseng calyx ethanolic extract. J. Ginseng Res. 2018 42 4 496 503 10.1016/j.jgr.2017.06.003 30337810
    [Google Scholar]
  48. Chen S. Wang Z. Huang Y. O'Barr S.A. Wong R.A. Yeung S. Chow M.S. Ginseng and anticancer drug combination to improve cancer chemotherapy: A critical review. Evid. Based Compl. Alter. Med. 2014 2014 168940 10.1155/2014/168940
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Sun M. Ye Y. Xiao L. Duan X. Zhang Y. Zhang H. Anticancer effects of ginsenoside Rg3 (Review). Int. J. Mol. Med. 2017 39 3 507 518 10.3892/ijmm.2017.2857 28098857
    [Google Scholar]
  50. Nag S.A. Qin J.J. Wang W. Wang M.H. Wang H. Zhang R. Ginsenosides as anticancer agents: In vitro and in vivo activities, structure–activity relationships, and molecular mechanisms of action. Front. Pharmacol. 2012 3 25 10.3389/fphar.2012.00025 22403544
    [Google Scholar]
  51. Bray F. Ferlay J. Soerjomataram I. Siegel R.L. Torre L.A. Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J. Clin. 2018 68 6 394 424 10.3322/caac.21492 30207593
    [Google Scholar]
  52. Schabath M.B. Cote M.L. Cancer progress and priorities: lung cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2019 28 10 1563 1579 10.1158/1055‑9965.EPI‑19‑0221 31575553
    [Google Scholar]
  53. Yu J.S. Roh H.S. Baek K.H. Lee S. Kim S. So H.M. Moon E. Pang C. Jang T.S. Kim K.H. Bioactivity-guided isolation of ginsenosides from Korean Red Ginseng with cytotoxic activity against human lung adenocarcinoma cells. J. Ginseng Res. 2018 42 4 562 570 10.1016/j.jgr.2018.02.004 30337817
    [Google Scholar]
  54. Yoo H.S. Kim J.M. Jo E. Cho C.K. Lee S.Y. Kang H.S. Lee M.G. Yang P.Y. Jang I.S. Modified Panax ginseng extract regulates autophagy by AMPK signaling in A549 human lung cancer cells. Oncol. Rep. 2017 37 6 3287 3296 10.3892/or.2017.5590 28440448
    [Google Scholar]
  55. Hwang I.H. Kwon Y.K. Cho C.K. Lee Y.W. Sung J.S. Joo J.C. Lee K.B. Yoo H.S. Jang I.S. Modified Panax ginseng extract inhibits uPAR-mediated α 5 β1-integrin signaling by modulating caveolin-1 to induce early apoptosis in lung cancer cells. Am. J. Chin. Med. 2016 44 5 1081 1097 10.1142/S0192415X16500609 27430913
    [Google Scholar]
  56. Lee D.G. Jang S.I. Kim Y.R. Yang K.E. Yoon S.J. Lee Z.W. An H.J. Jang I.S. Choi J.S. Yoo H.S. Anti-proliferative effects of ginsenosides extracted from mountain ginseng on lung cancer. Chin. J. Integr. Med. 2016 22 5 344 352 10.1007/s11655‑014‑1789‑8 25159864
    [Google Scholar]
  57. Jiang S. Liu H. Liu Z. Liu N. Liu R. Kang Y.R. Ji J.G. Zhang C. Hua B. Kang S.J. Adjuvant effects of fermented red ginseng extract on advanced non-small cell lung cancer patients treated with chemotherapy. Chin. J. Integr. Med. 2017 23 5 331 337 10.1007/s11655‑015‑2146‑x 26142337
    [Google Scholar]
  58. Rubio-Patiño C. Bossowski J.P. De Donatis G.M. Mondragón L. Villa E. Aira L.E. Chiche J. Mhaidly R. Lebeaupin C. Marchetti S. Voutetakis K. Chatziioannou A. Castelli F.A. Lamourette P. Chu-Van E. Fenaille F. Avril T. Passeron T. Patterson J.B. Verhoeyen E. Bailly-Maitre B. Chevet E. Ricci J.E. Low-protein diet induces IRE1α-dependent anticancer immunosurveillance. Cell Metab. 2018 27 4 828 842.e7 10.1016/j.cmet.2018.02.009 29551590
    [Google Scholar]
  59. Ge G. Yan Y. Cai H. Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibited proliferation by inducing ROS mediated ER stress dependent apoptosis in lung cancer cells. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2017 40 12 2117 2124 10.1248/bpb.b17‑00463 28966297
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Cancer. Available from:https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cancer(accessed on 2-10-2024)
  61. Song B.K. Kim K.M. Choi K.D. Im W.T. Production of the rare ginsenoside Rh2-MIX (20 (S)-Rh2, 20 (R)-Rh2, Rk2, and Rh3) by enzymatic conversion combined with acid treatment and evaluation of its anti-cancer activity. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2017 27 7 1233 1241 10.4014/jmb.1701.01077 28478658
    [Google Scholar]
  62. Kwak J.H. Park J.Y. Lee D. Kwak J.Y. Park E.H. Kim K.H. Park H.J. Kim H.Y. Jang H.J. Ham J. Hwang G.S. Yamabe N. Kang K.S. Inhibitory effects of ginseng sapogenins on the proliferation of triple negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2014 24 23 5409 5412 10.1016/j.bmcl.2014.10.041 25453798
    [Google Scholar]
  63. Shibata S. Fujita M. Itokawa H. Tanaka O. Ishii T. Studies on the Constituents of Japanese and Chinese Crude Drugs. XI. Panaxadiol, A Sapogenin of Ginseng Roots. (1). Chem. Pharm. Bull. (Tokyo) 1963 11 6 759 761 10.1248/cpb.11.759 14068710
    [Google Scholar]
  64. Oh J. Jeon S.B. Lee Y. Lee H. Kim J. Kwon B.R. Yu K.Y. Cha J.D. Hwang S.M. Choi K.M. Jeong Y.S. Fermented red ginseng extract inhibits cancer cell proliferation and viability. J. Med. Food 2015 18 4 421 428 10.1089/jmf.2014.3248 25658580
    [Google Scholar]
  65. Wen X. Zhang H.D. Zhao L. Yao Y.F. Zhao J.H. Tang J.H. Ginsenoside Rh2 differentially mediates microRNA expression to prevent chemoresistance of breast cancer. APJCP 2015 16 3 1105 1109 25735339
    [Google Scholar]
  66. AL Shabanah O.A. Alotaibi M.R. Al Rejaie S.S. Alhoshani A.R. Almutairi M.M. Alshammari M.A. Hafez M.M. Inhibitory effect of ginseng on breast cancer cell line growth via up-regulation of cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor, p21 and p53. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention: APJCP. 2016 17 11 4965 4971 28032724
    [Google Scholar]
  67. Gao Q. Zheng J. Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits prostate cancer cell growth through suppression of micro RNA ‐4295 that activates CDKN 1A. Cell Prolif. 2018 51 3 e12438 10.1111/cpr.12438 29457293
    [Google Scholar]
  68. Tong-Lin Wu T. Tong Y.C. Chen I.H. Niu H.S. Li Y. Cheng J.T. Induction of apoptosis in prostate cancer by ginsenoside Rh2. Oncotarget 2018 9 13 11109 11118 10.18632/oncotarget.24326 29541400
    [Google Scholar]
  69. Zhang Q. Hong B. Wu S. Niu T. Inhibition of prostatic cancer growth by ginsenoside Rh2. Tumour Biol. 2015 36 4 2377 2381 10.1007/s13277‑014‑2845‑5 25416441
    [Google Scholar]
  70. Jin X. Che D. Zhang Z. Yan H. Jia Z. Jia X. Ginseng consumption and risk of cancer: A meta-analysis. J. Ginseng Res. 2016 40 3 269 277 10.1016/j.jgr.2015.08.007 27616903
    [Google Scholar]
  71. Hwang J.W. Baek Y.M. Jang I.S. Yang K.E. Lee D.G. Yoon S.J. Rho J. Cho C.K. Lee Y.W. Kwon K.R. Yoo H.S. Sung J.S. Kim S. Park J.W. Jang B.C. Choi J.S. An enzymatically fortified ginseng extract inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of KATO3 human gastric cancer cells via modulation of Bax, mTOR, PKB and IκBα. Mol. Med. Rep. 2015 11 1 670 676 10.3892/mmr.2014.2704 25333578
    [Google Scholar]
  72. Huang J. Peng K. Wang L. Wen B. Zhou L. Luo T. Su M. Li J. Luo Z. Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in human leukemia cells via TNF-α signaling pathway. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin. (Shanghai) 2016 48 8 750 755 10.1093/abbs/gmw049 27177748
    [Google Scholar]
  73. Wang B.Y. Yang X.Q. Hu M. Shi L.J. Yin H.Y. Wu Y.M. Yang Y.B. Zhou H. Ding Z.T. Biotransformation of natural polyacetylene in red ginseng by Chaetomium globosum. J. Ginseng Res. 2020 44 6 770 774 10.1016/j.jgr.2019.06.007 33192119
    [Google Scholar]
  74. Christensen L.P. Jensen M. Kidmose U. Simultaneous determination of ginsenosides and polyacetylenes in American ginseng root (Panax quinquefolium L.) by high-performance liquid chromatography. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006 54 24 8995 9003 10.1021/jf062068p 17117783
    [Google Scholar]
  75. Kim R. Son S.R. Lee N.K. Kim J.Y. An G. Choi J.H. Jang D.S. Cytotoxic Properties of C17 Polyacetylenes from the Fresh Roots of Panax ginseng on Human Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Cells. Molecules 2022 27 20 7027 10.3390/molecules27207027 36296616
    [Google Scholar]
  76. Ng F. Yun H. Lei X. Danishefsky S.J. Fahey J. Stephenson K. Flexner C. Lee L. (3R,9R,10R)-Panaxytriol: a molecular-based nutraceutical with possible application to cancer prevention and treatment. Tetrahedron Lett. 2008 49 50 7178 7179 10.1016/j.tetlet.2008.09.169 20011028
    [Google Scholar]
  77. Wu W. Zhou Q. Zhao W. Gong Y. Su A. Liu F. Liu Y. Li Z. Zhu J. Ginsenoside Rg3 inhibition of thyroid cancer metastasis is associated with alternation of actin skeleton. J. Med. Food 2018 21 9 849 857 10.1089/jmf.2017.4144 30136914
    [Google Scholar]
  78. Liu T. Zhao L. Zhang Y. Chen W. Liu D. Hou H. Ding L. Li X. Ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3 targets HIF-1α to block hypoxia-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition in ovarian cancer cells. PLoS One 2014 9 9 e103887 10.1371/journal.pone.0103887 25197976
    [Google Scholar]
  79. Lee J.S. Ko E.J. Hwang H.S. Lee Y.N. Kwon Y.M. Kim M.C. Kang S.M. Antiviral activity of ginseng extract against respiratory syncytial virus infection. Int. J. Mol. Med. 2014 34 1 183 190 10.3892/ijmm.2014.1750 24756136
    [Google Scholar]
  80. Choi J.G. Jin Y.H. Lee H. Oh T.W. Yim N.H. Cho W.K. Ma J.Y. Protective effect of Panax notoginseng root water extract against influenza A virus infection by enhancing antiviral interferon-mediated immune responses and natural killer cell activity. Front. Immunol. 2017 8 1542 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01542 29181006
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Xue P. Yang X. Sun X. Ren G. Antifungal activity and mechanism of heat-transformed ginsenosides from notoginseng against Epidermophyton floccosum, Trichophyton rubrum, and Trichophyton mentagrophytes. RSC Advances 2017 7 18 10939 10946 10.1039/C6RA27542G
    [Google Scholar]
  82. Meskini M. Mohammadbeigi M. Solati J. Alimoradi S. Antibacterial and antifungal effect of ginseng powder. Eleventh International Laboratory and Clinical Congress 2019 Jan 16, Tehran, Iran, pp. 13621.
    [Google Scholar]
  83. Uttara B. Singh A. Zamboni P. Mahajan R. Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative diseases: a review of upstream and downstream antioxidant therapeutic options. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 2009 7 1 65 74 10.2174/157015909787602823 19721819
    [Google Scholar]
  84. Gau R.J. Yang H.L. Suen J.L. Lu F.J. Induction of oxidative stress by humic acid through increasing intracellular iron: a possible mechanism leading to atherothrombotic vascular disorder in blackfoot disease. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001 283 4 743 749 10.1006/bbrc.2001.4832 11350046
    [Google Scholar]
  85. Dandona P. Aljada A. Chaudhuri A. Mohanty P. Garg R. Metabolic Syndrome. Circulation 2005 111 11 1448 1454 10.1161/01.CIR.0000158483.13093.9D 15781756
    [Google Scholar]
  86. Cerutti P. Amstad P. Inflammation and oxidative stress in carcinogenesis. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference September 17–21, 1991, Berlin, FRG, pp. 387-390.
    [Google Scholar]
  87. Giustarini D. Dalle-Donne I. Tsikas D. Rossi R. Oxidative stress and human diseases: Origin, link, measurement, mechanisms, and biomarkers. Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 2009 46 5-6 241 281 10.3109/10408360903142326 19958214
    [Google Scholar]
  88. Feng X. Zhang L. Zhu H. Comparative anticancer and antioxidant activities of different ingredients of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761). Planta Med. 2009 75 8 792 796 10.1055/s‑0029‑1185451 19288403
    [Google Scholar]
  89. Lee Y.M. Gweon O.C. Seo Y.J. Im J. Kang M.J. Kim M.J. Kim J.I. Antioxidant effect of garlic and aged black garlic in animal model of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutr. Res. Pract. 2009 3 2 156 161 10.4162/nrp.2009.3.2.156 20016716
    [Google Scholar]
  90. Kobayashi H. Tanaka Y. Asagiri K. Asakawa T. Tanikawa K. Kage M. Yagi M. The antioxidant effect of green tea catechin ameliorates experimental liver injury. Phytomedicine 2010 17 3-4 197 202 10.1016/j.phymed.2009.12.006 20092986
    [Google Scholar]
  91. Chis I.C. Ungureanu M.I. Marton A. Simedrea R. Muresan A. Postescu I.D. Decea N. Antioxidant effects of a grape seed extract in a rat model of diabetes mellitus. Diab. Vasc. Dis. Res. 2009 6 3 200 204 10.1177/1479164109336692 20368212
    [Google Scholar]
  92. Park S.K. Hyun S.H. In G. Park C.K. Kwak Y.S. Jang Y.J. Kim B. Kim J.H. Han C.K. The antioxidant activities of Korean Red Ginseng (Panax ginseng) and ginsenosides: A systemic review through in vivo and clinical trials. J. Ginseng Res. 2021 45 1 41 47 10.1016/j.jgr.2020.09.006 33437155
    [Google Scholar]
  93. Lee B.C. Choe Y.M. Suh G.H. Choi I.G. Kim H.S. Hwang J. Yi D. Jhoo J.H. Kim J.W. Ginseng intake and Alzheimer disease-specific cognition in older adults according to apolipoprotein ε4 allele status. Front. Aging Neurosci. 2023 15 1152626 10.3389/fnagi.2023.1152626 37122382
    [Google Scholar]
  94. Bermejo P. Martín-Aragón S. Benedí J. Susín C. Felici E. Gil P. Manuel Ribera J. Villar Á.M. Peripheral levels of glutathione and protein oxidation as markers in the development of Alzheimer’s disease from Mild Cognitive Impairment. Free Radic. Res. 2008 42 2 162 170 10.1080/10715760701861373 18297609
    [Google Scholar]
  95. Reay J.L. Kennedy D.O. Scholey A.B. Single doses of Panax ginseng (G115) reduce blood glucose levels and improve cognitive performance during sustained mental activity. J. Psychopharmacol. 2005 19 4 357 365 10.1177/0269881105053286 15982990
    [Google Scholar]
  96. Kim S. Park K.S. Effects of Panax ginseng extract on lipid metabolism in humans. Pharmacol. Res. 2003 48 5 511 513 10.1016/S1043‑6618(03)00189‑0 12967598
    [Google Scholar]
  97. Kan J. Velliquette R.A. Grann K. Burns C.R. Scholten J. Tian F. Zhang Q. Gui M. A novel botanical formula prevents diabetes by improving insulin resistance. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2017 17 1 352 10.1186/s12906‑017‑1848‑3 28679380
    [Google Scholar]
  98. Fu Y. Ji L.L. Chronic ginseng consumption attenuates age-associated oxidative stress in rats. J. Nutr. 2003 133 11 3603 3609 10.1093/jn/133.11.3603 14608081
    [Google Scholar]
  99. Luo J.Z. Luo L. Ginseng on hyperglycemia: effects and mechanisms. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 2009 6 4 423 427 10.1093/ecam/nem178 18955300
    [Google Scholar]
  100. Zhang L. Virgous C. Si H. Ginseng and obesity: observations and understanding in cultured cells, animals and humans. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2017 44 1 10 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2016.11.010 27930947
    [Google Scholar]
  101. Liu W. Zheng Y. Han L. Wang H. Saito M. Ling M. Kimura Y. Feng Y. Saponins (Ginsenosides) from stems and leaves of Panax quinquefolium prevented high-fat diet-induced obesity in mice. Phytomedicine 2008 15 12 1140 1145 10.1016/j.phymed.2008.07.002 18768305
    [Google Scholar]
  102. Liu R. Zhang J.Z. Liu W.C. Zheng Y.N. Anti-obesity effects of protopanaxatriol type ginsenosides isolated from American ginseng leaves in mice fed a high-fat diet. Int. J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci. 2012 6 106 112
    [Google Scholar]
  103. Hwang J.T. Lee M.S. Kim H.J. Sung M.J. Kim H.Y. Kim M.S. Kwon D.Y. Antiobesity effect of ginsenoside Rg3 involves the AMPK and PPAR‐ γ signal pathways. Phytother. Res. 2009 23 2 262 266 10.1002/ptr.2606 18844326
    [Google Scholar]
  104. Li Z. Ji G.E. Ginseng and obesity. J. Ginseng Res. 2018 42 1 1 8 10.1016/j.jgr.2016.12.005 29348715
    [Google Scholar]
  105. Wu G. Yi J. Liu L. Wang P. Zhang Z. Li Z. Pseudoginsenoside F11, a novel partial PPARγ agonist, promotes adiponectin oligomerization and secretion in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. PPAR Res. 2013 2013 1 8 10.1155/2013/701017 24454336
    [Google Scholar]
  106. Zhu L. Li J. Xing N. Han D. Kuang H. Ge P. American ginseng regulates gene expression to protect against premature ovarian failure in rats. BioMed Res. Int. 2015 2015 1 8 10.1155/2015/767124 25705687
    [Google Scholar]
  107. Fernández-Moriano C. González-Burgos E. Iglesias I. Lozano R. Gómez-Serranillos M.P. Evaluation of the adaptogenic potential exerted by ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 against oxidative stress-mediated neurotoxicity in an in vitro neuronal model. PLoS One 2017 12 8 e0182933 10.1371/journal.pone.0182933 28813475
    [Google Scholar]
  108. Vuksan V. Sievenpipper J. Jovanovski E. Jenkins A.L. Current clinical evidence for Korean red ginseng in management of diabetes and vascular disease: a Toronto’s Ginseng Clinical Testing Program. J. Ginseng Res. 2010 34 4 264 273 10.5142/jgr.2010.34.4.264
    [Google Scholar]
  109. Park B.J. Lee Y.J. Lee H.R. Jung D.H. Na H.Y. Kim H.B. Shim J.Y. Effects of Korean red ginseng on cardiovascular risks in subjects with metabolic syndrome: a double-blind randomized controlled study. Korean J. Fam. Med. 2012 33 4 190 196 10.4082/kjfm.2012.33.4.190 22916320
    [Google Scholar]
  110. Ratan Z.A. Youn S.H. Kwak Y.S. Han C.K. Haidere M.F. Kim J.K. Min H. Jung Y.J. Hosseinzadeh H. Hyun S.H. Cho J.Y. Adaptogenic effects of Panax ginseng on modulation of immune functions. J. Ginseng Res. 2021 45 1 32 40 10.1016/j.jgr.2020.09.004 33437154
    [Google Scholar]
  111. Hyun S.H. Ahn H.Y. Kim H.J. Kim S.W. So S.H. In G. Park C.K. Han C.K. Immuno-enhancement effects of Korean Red Ginseng in healthy adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J. Ginseng Res. 2021 45 1 191 198 10.1016/j.jgr.2020.08.003 33437171
    [Google Scholar]
  112. Kim J.H. Kim D.H. Jo S. Cho M.J. Cho Y.R. Lee Y.J. Byun S. Immunomodulatory functional foods and their molecular mechanisms. Exp. Mol. Med. 2022 54 1 1 11 10.1038/s12276‑022‑00724‑0 35079119
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Yang Y. Ju Z. Yang Y. Zhang Y. Yang L. Wang Z. Phytochemical analysis of Panax species: a review. J. Ginseng Res. 2021 45 1 1 21 10.1016/j.jgr.2019.12.009 33437152
    [Google Scholar]
  114. Im K. Kim J. Min H. Ginseng, the natural effectual antiviral: Protective effects of Korean Red Ginseng against viral infection. J. Ginseng Res. 2016 40 4 309 314 10.1016/j.jgr.2015.09.002 27746682
    [Google Scholar]
  115. Yoo D.G. Kim M.C. Park M.K. Song J.M. Quan F.S. Park K.M. Cho Y.K. Kang S.M. Protective effect of Korean red ginseng extract on the infections by H1N1 and H3N2 influenza viruses in mice. J. Med. Food 2012 15 10 855 862 10.1089/jmf.2012.0017 22856395
    [Google Scholar]
  116. Park E.H. Yum J. Ku K.B. Kim H.M. Kang Y.M. Kim J.C. Kim J.A. Kang Y.K. Seo S.H. Red Ginseng-containing diet helps to protect mice and ferrets from the lethal infection by highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus. J. Ginseng Res. 2014 38 1 40 46 10.1016/j.jgr.2013.11.012 24558309
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Lee C.S. Lee J.H. Oh M. Choi K.M. Jeong M.R. Park J.D. Kwon D.Y. Ha K.C. Park E.O. Lee N. Kim S.Y. Choi E.K. Kim M.G. Chae S.W. Preventive effect of Korean red ginseng for acute respiratory illness: a randomized and double-blind clinical trial. J. Korean Med. Sci. 2012 27 12 1472 1478 10.3346/jkms.2012.27.12.1472 23255845
    [Google Scholar]
  118. Lee S.O. Lee S. Kim S.J. Rhee D.K. Korean Red Ginseng enhances pneumococcal Δpep27 vaccine efficacy by inhibiting reactive oxygen species production. J. Ginseng Res. 2019 43 2 218 225 10.1016/j.jgr.2017.11.007 30962736
    [Google Scholar]
  119. Xu M.L. Kim H.J. Choi Y.R. Kim H.J. Intake of korean red ginseng extract and saponin enhances the protection conferred by vaccination with inactivated influenza a virus. J. Ginseng Res. 2012 36 4 396 402 10.5142/jgr.2012.36.4.396 23717142
    [Google Scholar]
  120. Feikin D.R. Higdon M.M. Abu-Raddad L.J. Andrews N. Araos R. Goldberg Y. Groome M.J. Huppert A. O’Brien K.L. Smith P.G. Wilder-Smith A. Zeger S. Deloria Knoll M. Patel M.K. Duration of effectiveness of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 disease: results of a systematic review and meta-regression. Lancet 2022 399 10328 924 944 10.1016/S0140‑6736(22)00152‑0 35202601
    [Google Scholar]
  121. Cronkite D.A. Strutt T.M. The regulation of inflammation by innate and adaptive lymphocytes. J. Immunol. Res. 2018 2018 1467538 10.1155/2018/1467538
    [Google Scholar]
  122. Zhao L. Zhang T. Zhang K. Pharmacological effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on intestinal inflammation and the immune system. Front. Immunol. 2024 15 1353614 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1353614 38698858
    [Google Scholar]
  123. Saba E. Lee Y.Y. Kim M. Kim S.H. Hong S.B. Rhee M.H. A comparative study on immune-stimulatory and antioxidant activities of various types of ginseng extracts in murine and rodent models. J. Ginseng Res. 2018 42 4 577 584 10.1016/j.jgr.2018.07.004 30344431
    [Google Scholar]
  124. Jung J.H. Kang T.K. Oh J.H. Jeong J.U. Ko K.P. Kim S.T. The effect of Korean red ginseng on symptoms and inflammation in patients with allergic rhinitis. Ear Nose Throat J. 2021 100 5_suppl Suppl. 712S 719S 10.1177/0145561320907172 32070136
    [Google Scholar]
  125. Kang S.W. Min H.Y. Ginseng, the’immunity boost’: the effects of Panax ginseng on immune system. J. Ginseng Res. 2012 36 4 354 368 10.5142/jgr.2012.36.4.354 23717137
    [Google Scholar]
  126. Cho I.H. Effects of Panax ginseng in neurodegenerative diseases. J. Ginseng Res. 2012 36 4 342 353 10.5142/jgr.2012.36.4.342 23717136
    [Google Scholar]
  127. Rhee M.Y. Cho B. Kim K.I. Kim J. Kim M.K. Lee E.K. Kim H.J. Kim C.H. Blood pressure lowering effect of Korea ginseng derived ginseol K-g1. Am. J. Chin. Med. 2014 42 3 605 618 10.1142/S0192415X14500396 24871654
    [Google Scholar]
  128. Kim H.J. Kim P. Shin C.Y. A comprehensive review of the therapeutic and pharmacological effects of ginseng and ginsenosides in central nervous system. J. Ginseng Res. 2013 37 1 8 29 10.5142/jgr.2013.37.8 23717153
    [Google Scholar]
  129. Fang F. Chen X. Huang T. Lue L.F. Luddy J.S. Yan S.S. Multi-faced neuroprotective effects of Ginsenoside Rg1 in an Alzheimer mouse model. Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis. 2012 1822 2 286 292 10.1016/j.bbadis.2011.10.004 22015470
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Gong L. Li S.L. Li H. Zhang L. Ginsenoside Rg1 protects primary cultured rat hippocampal neurons from cell apoptosis induced by β-amyloid protein. Pharm. Biol. 2011 49 5 501 507 10.3109/13880209.2010.521514 21438847
    [Google Scholar]
  131. Zhang H. Liu Y. Lao M. Ma Z. Yi X. Puerarin protects Alzheimer’s disease neuronal cybrids from oxidant-stress induced apoptosis by inhibiting pro-death signaling pathways. Exp. Gerontol. 2011 46 1 30 37 10.1016/j.exger.2010.09.013 20933077
    [Google Scholar]
  132. Lee B. Sur B. Park J. Kim S.H. Kwon S. Yeom M. Shim I. Lee H. Hahm D.H. Ginsenoside rg3 alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced learning and memory impairments by anti-inflammatory activity in rats. Biomol. Ther. (Seoul) 2013 21 5 381 390 10.4062/biomolther.2013.053 24244826
    [Google Scholar]
  133. Zhao R. Zhang Z. Song Y. Wang D. Qi J. Wen S. Implication of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt/glycogen synthase kinase-3β pathway in ginsenoside Rb1's attenuation of beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity and tau phosphorylation. J. Ethnopharmacol. 133 3 1109 1116
    [Google Scholar]
  134. Heo J.H. Lee S.T. Oh M.J. Park H.J. Shim J.Y. Chu K. Kim M.H. Improvement of cognitive deficit in Alzheimer’s disease patients by long term treatment with korean red ginseng. J. Ginseng Res. 2011 35 4 457 461 10.5142/jgr.2011.35.4.457 23717092
    [Google Scholar]
  135. Shin S.J. Jeon S.G. Kim J. Jeong Y. Kim S. Park Y.H. Lee S.K. Park H.H. Hong S.B. Oh S. Hwang J. Kim H. Park H. Nam Y. Lee Y.Y. Kim J.J. Park S.H. Kim J.S. Moon M. Red ginseng attenuates Aβ-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and Aβ-mediated pathology in an animal model of Alzheimer’s disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019 20 12 3030 10.3390/ijms20123030 31234321
    [Google Scholar]
  136. Kim J. Kim S.H. Lee D.S. Lee D.J. Kim S.H. Chung S. Yang H.O. Effects of fermented ginseng on memory impairment and β-amyloid reduction in Alzheimer’s disease experimental models. J. Ginseng Res. 2013 37 1 100 107 10.5142/jgr.2013.37.100 23717163
    [Google Scholar]
  137. Choi J.G. Kim N. Huh E. Lee H. Oh M.H. Park J.D. Pyo M.K. Oh M.S. White Ginseng Protects Mouse Hippocampal Cells Against Amyloid-Beta Oligomer Toxicity. Phytother. Res. 2017 31 3 497 506 10.1002/ptr.5776 28112442
    [Google Scholar]
  138. Yang Y. Wang Z. Cao Y. Liu J. Li P. Li H. Liu M. Yizhiqingxin formula alleviates cognitive deficits and enhances autophagy via mTOR signaling pathway modulation in early onset Alzheimer’s disease mice. Front. Pharmacol. 2019 10 1041 10.3389/fphar.2019.01041 31607908
    [Google Scholar]
  139. Ma L. Cao Y. Wang F. Li Z. Wang Z. Yang Y. Pei H. Li H. RETRACTED: Yizhi Qingxin Formula Extract Ameliorates Cognitive Decline in Aged Rats via the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor/Tropomyosin Receptor Kinase B Pathway. Front. Pharmacol. 2020 11 510 10.3389/fphar.2020.00510 32425777
    [Google Scholar]
  140. Wu Q. Cao Y. Liu M. Liu F. Brantner A.H. Yang Y. Wei Y. Zhou Y. Wang Z. Ma L. Wang F. Pei H. Li H. Traditional Chinese medicine shenmayizhi decoction ameliorates memory and cognitive impairment induced by scopolamine via preventing hippocampal cholinergic dysfunction in rats. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2019 15 3167 3176 10.2147/NDT.S214976 31814724
    [Google Scholar]
  141. Seo J.S. Yun J.H. Baek I.S. Leem Y.H. Kang H.W. Cho H.K. Lyu Y.S. Son H.J. Han P.L. Oriental medicine Jangwonhwan reduces Aβ(1–42) level and β-amyloid deposition in the brain of Tg-APPswe/PS1dE9 mouse model of Alzheimer disease. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2010 128 1 206 212 10.1016/j.jep.2010.01.014 20079417
    [Google Scholar]
  142. Bell L. Whyte A. Duysburgh C. Marzorati M. Van den Abbeele P. Le Cozannet R. Fança-Berthon P. Fromentin E. Williams C. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial investigating the acute and chronic benefits of American Ginseng (Cereboost®) on mood and cognition in healthy young adults, including in vitro investigation of gut microbiota changes as a possible mechanism of action. Eur. J. Nutr. 2022 61 1 413 428 10.1007/s00394‑021‑02654‑5 34396468
    [Google Scholar]
  143. Wang W. Yang L. Song L. Guo M. Li C. Yang B. Wang M. Kou N. Gao J. Qu H. Ma Y. Xue M. Shi D. Combination of Panax notoginseng saponins and aspirin potentiates platelet inhibition with alleviated gastric injury via modulating arachidonic acid metabolism. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2021 134 111165 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.111165 33370633
    [Google Scholar]
  144. Hamidian M. Foroughinia F. Yousefi M. Haghighat S. Haem E. Effects of Panax Ginseng on Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients with Non-Metastatic Breast Cancer: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial Ginseng for HRQOL in Breast Cancer. Nutr. Cancer 2023 75 6 1429 1437 10.1080/01635581.2023.2181735 37218691
    [Google Scholar]
  145. Bessell E. Fuller N.R. Markovic T.P. Lau N.S. Burk J. Hendy C. Picone T. Li A. Caterson I.D. Effects of α-cyclodextrin on cholesterol control and hydrolyzed ginseng extract on glycemic control in people with prediabetes: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw. Open 2020 3 11 e2023491 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.23491 33201232
    [Google Scholar]
  146. Vuksan V. Xu Z.Z. Jovanovski E. Jenkins A.L. Beljan-Zdravkovic U. Sievenpiper J.L. Mark Stavro P. Zurbau A. Duvnjak L. Li M.Z.C. Efficacy and safety of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) extract on glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes: a double-blind, randomized, cross-over clinical trial. Eur. J. Nutr. 2019 58 3 1237 1245 10.1007/s00394‑018‑1642‑0 29478187
    [Google Scholar]
  147. Ghorbani Z. Mirghafourvand M. Farshbaf Khalili A. Javadzadeh Y. Shakouri S.K. Dastranj Tabrizi A. The Effect of <b><i>Panax ginseng</i></b> on Genitourinary Syndrome in Postmenopausal Women: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. Complement. Med. Res. 2021 28 5 419 426 10.1159/000514944 33730722
    [Google Scholar]
  148. Farnia V. Alikhani M. Ebrahimi A. Golshani S. Sadeghi Bahmani D. Brand S. Ginseng treatment improves the sexual side effects of methadone maintenance treatment. Psychiatry Res. 2019 276 142 150 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.05.004 31082749
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Zhang Y. Wang X.Q. Liu H. Liu J. Hou W. Lin H.S. [A multicenter, large-sample, randomized clinical trial on improving the median survival time of advanced non-small cell lung cancer by combination of Ginseng Rg3 and chemotherapy]. Zhonghua Zhong Liu Za Zhi 2018 40 4 295 299 [Chinese Journal of Oncology]. 29730918
    [Google Scholar]
  150. Chung Y.S. Lee I.O. Lee J.Y. Nam E.J. Kim S.W. Kim Y.T. Kim S. Effects of Korean red ginseng (panax ginseng CA Meyer) on menopausal symptoms in premenopausal women after gynecologic cancer surgery: a double-blind, randomized controlled trial. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 2021 27 1 66 72 10.1089/acm.2019.0429 33216632
    [Google Scholar]
  151. Wu L. Song H. Zhang C. Wang A. Zhang B. Xiong C. Zhuang X. Zang Y. Li C. Fang Q. Qu C. Wang L. Zhang M. Li H. Wang X. Li Y. Xia L. Yao Z. Nie Z. Gao Y. Ji X. Efficacy and Safety of Panax notoginseng Saponins in the Treatment of Adults With Ischemic Stroke in China. JAMA Netw. Open 2023 6 6 e2317574 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.17574 37338907
    [Google Scholar]
  152. Zhang C. Zheng Y. Chen T. Wang S. Xu M. The utility of traditional Chinese medicine (Shenmai) in the cardiac rehabilitation after coronary artery bypass grafting: A single-center randomized clinical trial. Complement. Ther. Med. 2019 47 102203 10.1016/j.ctim.2019.102203 31779994
    [Google Scholar]
  153. Cai Y. Zhang X. Huang Y. Wang L. Sun J. Liang W. Ou A. Yu B. Guo J. Zhao M. Ni X. Chen S. The add-on effect of dengzhan shengmai capsules on secondary prevention of ischemic stroke: A multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Complement. Ther. Med. 2019 46 189 194 10.1016/j.ctim.2019.08.015 31519277
    [Google Scholar]
  154. Liu Q. Wu H. Wang J. Li X. Effects of Shenmai injection on the values of CO, SV, and EF in patients undergoing off-pump coronary artery bypass graft. Medicine (Baltimore) 2018 97 10 e0085 10.1097/MD.0000000000010085 29517675
    [Google Scholar]
  155. Kwon Y.J. Jang S.N. Liu K.H. Jung D.H. Effect of Korean red ginseng on cholesterol metabolites in postmenopausal women with hypercholesterolemia: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Nutrients 2020 12 11 3423 10.3390/nu12113423 33171597
    [Google Scholar]
  156. White D.J. Camfield D.A. Ossoukhova A. Savage K. Le Cozannet R. Fança-Berthon P. Scholey A. Effects of Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng) on the steady state visually evoked potential during cognitive performance. Hum. Psychopharmacol. 2020 35 6 1 6 10.1002/hup.2756 32896022
    [Google Scholar]
  157. Juan S. Lee J.H. Won S.J. Oh S. Ha M.S. Effect of Saengmaeksan on Fatigue, Liver Function, and Immunity Combined with High-Intensity Training. J. Immunol. Res. 2023 2023 1 9 10.1155/2023/3269293 37425492
    [Google Scholar]
  158. Park K. Ahn C.W. Kim Y. Nam J.S. The effect of Korean Red Ginseng on sarcopenia biomarkers in type 2 diabetes patients. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2020 90 104108 10.1016/j.archger.2020.104108 32470863
    [Google Scholar]
  159. Zhang D.W. Wang S.L. Wang P.L. Du J.P. Gao Z.Y. Wang C.L. Xu H. Shi D.Z. The efficacy of Chinese herbal medicines on acute coronary syndrome with renal insufficiency after percutaneous coronary intervention. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2020 248 112354 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112354 31689480
    [Google Scholar]
  160. Chen Y. Lin L. Wu L. Xu Y. Shergis J.L. Zhang A.L. Wen Z. Worsnop C. Da Costa C. Thien F. Xue C.C. Effect of panax ginseng (G115) capsules versus placebo on acute exacerbations in patients with moderate to very severe copd: A randomized controlled trial. Int. J. Chron. Obstruct. Pulmon. Dis. 2020 15 671 680 10.2147/COPD.S236425 32273696
    [Google Scholar]
  161. Kim J.W. Han S.W. Cho J.Y. Chung I.J. Kim J.G. Lee K.H. Park K.U. Baek S.K. Oh S.C. Lee M.A. Oh D. Shim B. Ahn J.B. Shin D. Lee J.W. Kim Y.H. Korean red ginseng for cancer-related fatigue in colorectal cancer patients with chemotherapy: A randomised phase III trial. Eur. J. Cancer 2020 130 51 62 10.1016/j.ejca.2020.02.018 32172198
    [Google Scholar]
  162. Peng Y.Y. Jing H.T. Luan L. Tu Y.Y. Treatment of menopausal syndrome by combined electroacupuncture, acupoint-injection and fire-needle therapies. Acupuncture Res. 2018 43 4 260 262
    [Google Scholar]
  163. Pan H.T. Wang J.J. Huang J.L. Shuai Y.L. Li J. Hu Z.Z. Ding Y.Z. Liu Q.H. Ranibizumab plus fufang xueshuantong capsule versus ranibizumab alone for exudative age-related macular degeneration. J. Int. Med. Res. 2020 48 9 10.1177/0300060520931618 32962487
    [Google Scholar]
  164. Naghavi moghadam A. Shiravand M. Rezapour S. Khoshdel A. Bazgir B. Mardani M. Effect of a session of intensive exercise with ginseng supplementation on histone H3 protein methylation of skeletal muscle of nonathlete men. Mol. Genet. Genomic Med. 2019 7 5 e651 10.1002/mgg3.651 30920174
    [Google Scholar]
  165. Flanagan S.D. DuPont W.H. Caldwell L.K. Hardesty V.H. Barnhart E.C. Beeler M.K. Post E.M. Volek J.S. Kraemer W.J. The effects of a Korean ginseng, GINST15, on hypo-pituitary-adrenal and oxidative activity induced by intense work stress. J. Med. Food 2018 21 1 104 112 10.1089/jmf.2017.0071 28981384
    [Google Scholar]
  166. Guglielmo M. Di Pede P. Alfieri S. Bergamini C. Platini F. Ripamonti C.I. Orlandi E. Iacovelli N.A. Licitra L. Maddalo M. Bossi P. A randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, phase II study to evaluate the efficacy of ginseng in reducing fatigue in patients treated for head and neck cancer. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 2020 146 10 2479 2487 10.1007/s00432‑020‑03300‑z 32617701
    [Google Scholar]
  167. Liu Y. Sun Y. Wang X. Wang D. Zeng L. Lu Q. Efficacy of the panax notoginseng ejiao suppository in the treatment of patients with ulcerative proctitis and its effect on inflammatory response and immune function. Dis Markers. 2022 2022 1479964 10.1155/2022/1479964
    [Google Scholar]
  168. Best T. Clarke C. Nuzum N. Teo W.P. Acute effects of combined Bacopa, American ginseng and whole coffee fruit on working memory and cerebral haemodynamic response of the prefrontal cortex: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Nutr. Neurosci. 2021 24 11 873 884 10.1080/1028415X.2019.1690288 31736428
    [Google Scholar]
  169. Nishino T. Yoshida T. Goto M. Inoue S. Minato T. Fujiwara S. Yamamoto Y. Furukita Y. Yuasa Y. Yamai H. Takechi H. Toba H. Takizawa H. Yoshida M. Seike J. Miyoshi T. Tangoku A. The effects of the herbal medicine Daikenchuto (TJ-100) after esophageal cancer resection, open-label, randomized controlled trial. Esophagus 2018 15 2 75 82 10.1007/s10388‑017‑0601‑9 29892933
    [Google Scholar]
  170. Xu Y. Hu H. Li Y. Cen R. Yao C. Ma W. Huang M. Yin Y. Gao H. Liu Y. Endler A. Effects of huoxin formula on the arterial functions of patients with coronary heart disease. Pharm. Biol. 2019 57 1 13 20 10.1080/13880209.2018.1561726 31199705
    [Google Scholar]
  171. Fukami H. Ueda T. Matsuoka N. Pharmacokinetic study of compound K in Japanese subjects after ingestion of Panax ginseng fermented by Lactobacillus paracasei A221 reveals significant increase of absorption into blood. J. Med. Food 2019 22 3 257 263 10.1089/jmf.2018.4271 30543483
    [Google Scholar]
  172. Guo M. Wang P. Du J. Fu C. Yang Q. Gao Z. Zhu M. Lv S. Deng Y. Li T. Shi D. Working Group X.Y. Xinyue Capsule in patients with stable coronary artery disease after percutaneous coronary intervention: a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Pharmacol. Res. 2020 158 104883 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104883 32446979
    [Google Scholar]
  173. Gou Z. Zhang W. Liang X. Wang Y. Mou J. Li M. Zhang Y. Feng P. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase I dose escalation study of Dan Qi Tong Mai tablet in healthy volunteers. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2019 19 1 336 10.1186/s12906‑019‑2751‑x 31775729
    [Google Scholar]
  174. Carmichael O.T. Pillai S. Shankapal P. McLellan A. Kay D.G. Gold B.T. Keller J.N. A combination of essential fatty acids, Panax ginseng extract, and green tea catechins modifies brain fMRI signals in healthy older adults. J. Nutr. Health Aging 2018 22 7 837 846 10.1007/s12603‑018‑1028‑2 30080229
    [Google Scholar]
  175. Xu Y. Wang X.S. Chen Y. Shi Q. Chen T.H. Li P. A phase II randomized controlled trial of Renshen Yangrong Tang herbal extract granules for fatigue reduction in cancer survivors. J. Pain Symptom Manage. 2020 59 5 966 973 10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2019.10.018 31668965
    [Google Scholar]
  176. Jackson P.A. Wightman E.L. Veasey R. Forster J. Khan J. Saunders C. Mitchell S. Haskell-Ramsay C.F. Kennedy D.O. A randomized, crossover study of the acute cognitive and cerebral blood flow effects of phenolic, nitrate and botanical beverages in young, healthy humans. Nutrients 2020 12 8 2254 10.3390/nu12082254 32731478
    [Google Scholar]
  177. Motoo Y. Tomita Y. Fujita H. Prophylactic efficacy of ninjin'yoeito for oxaliplatin-induced cumulative peripheral neuropathy in patients with colorectal cancer receiving postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy: A randomized, open-label, phase 2 trial (HOPE-2). Int. J. Clin. Oncol. 2020 25 6 1123 1129 10.1007/s10147‑020‑01648‑3
    [Google Scholar]
  178. Bhang Y.H. Kim K.I. Kim J. Ahn J. Jung H.S. Yang C. Ko S.J. Bu Y. Park J.W. Park K.S. Jung H.J. Lee J.H. Lee B.J. Efficacy and safety of Ojeok-san plus Saengmaek-san for gastroesophageal reflux-induced chronic cough: protocol for a pilot, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Trials 2020 21 1 118 10.1186/s13063‑019‑4030‑z 31996267
    [Google Scholar]
  179. Chen L. Wang L. Zhuo Q. Zhang Q. Chen F. Li L. Lin L. Effect of Shenmai injection on cognitive function after cardiopulmonary bypass in cardiac surgical patients: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Anesthesiol. 2018 18 1 142 10.1186/s12871‑018‑0604‑7 30309327
    [Google Scholar]
  180. Ke Wang Lin Li Yanqiu Wang Guoyan Fang Ming Wei Han Ding Wei Liu Zhenghui Huang Effect of Baihe Gujin decoction combined with Shengmai powder on the expression of IL-1β and IL-1Ra in peripheral blood CD14+ monocytes from patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Cell. Mol. Biol. 2022 68 2 60 63 10.14715/cmb/2022.68.2.9 35869725
    [Google Scholar]
  181. Xuedong A.N. Lina M. Ping X. Wen S.U. Beibei W. Leiya K. Zequan Z. Meng Q.I. Song H.U. Jing C. Xiujuan L.I. Jinwei L. Juan Z. Jie Q. Dan L. Guangwei L. Youqin Y. Guiping Y. Dandan D. Wei Z. Junxiu T. De J. Xiaolin T. Li W. Effects of Shengmai Yin on pulmonary and cardiac function in coronavirus disease 2019 convalescent patients with cardiopulmonary symptoms: a randomized, double blind, multicenter control trial. J. Tradit. Chin. Med. 2023 43 1 140 145 36640005
    [Google Scholar]
  182. Xu L.W. Quan X.M. Song C.X. Liu Y.L. Xu H.Y. Influence on orbicularis oculi muscle in the patients with facial neuritis treated with the penetra-ting needling at Cuanzhu (BL2) and Yuyao (EX-HN4) combined with the perpendicular needling at Shenmai (BL62). Acupunct. Res. 2020 45 9 735 739
    [Google Scholar]
  183. Kim H. Lee Y.S. Yu H.Y. Kwon M. Kim K.K. In G. Hong S.K. Kim S.K. Anti-inflammatory effects of Limosilactobacillus fermentum KGC1601 isolated from panax ginseng and its probiotic characteristics. Foods 2022 11 12 1707 10.3390/foods11121707 35741904
    [Google Scholar]
  184. Xu H.L. Chen G.H. Wu Y.T. Xie L.P. Tan Z.B. Liu B. Fan H.J. Chen H.M. Huang G.Q. Liu M. Zhou Y.C. Ginsenoside Ro, an oleanolic saponin of Panax ginseng, exerts anti-inflammatory effect by direct inhibiting toll like receptor 4 signaling pathway. J. Ginseng Res. 2022 46 1 156 166 10.1016/j.jgr.2021.05.011 35058732
    [Google Scholar]
  185. Kim E.N. Kim T.Y. Park E.K. Kim J.Y. Jeong G.S. Panax ginseng fruit has anti-inflammatory effect and induces osteogenic differentiation by regulating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway in in vitro and in vivo models of periodontitis. Antioxidants 2020 9 12 1221 10.3390/antiox9121221 33287198
    [Google Scholar]
  186. Kan H. Zhang D. Chen W. Wang S. He Z. Pang S. Qu S. Wang Y. Identification of anti-inflammatory components in Panax ginseng of Sijunzi Decoction based on spectrum-effect relationship. Chin. Herb. Med. 2022 15 1 123 131 36875431
    [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266344493241014082257
Loading
/content/journals/ctmc/10.2174/0115680266344493241014082257
Loading

Data & Media loading...

Supplements

Supplementary material is available on the publisher's website along with the published article.


  • Article Type:
    Review Article
Keywords: Clinical trials ; Ginsenosides ; Cancer ; Antioxidant ; Panax ; Saponin glycosides
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test