Paradigms and Practice Shifts: A Topical Narrative Review of the Evolving Face of Exposure-Based Treatment for Youth

References

1. FriedbergR.D. Where’s the beef: Concrete elements in supervision with CBT with youth.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry20155452753110.1016/j.jaac.2015.03.020 26088653
   [Google Scholar]
2. PlaistedH. WaiteP. GordonK. CreswellC. Optimising exposure for children and adolescents with anxiety, OCD, and PTSD: A systematic review.Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev.202124234836910.1007/s10567‑020‑00335‑z 33547624
   [Google Scholar]
3. SellesR.R. NaqqashZ. BestJ.R. Effects of treatment setting on outcomes of flexibly-dosed intensive cognitive behavioral therapy for pediatric ocd: A randomized controlled pilot trial.Front. Psychiatry20211266949410.3389/fpsyt.2021.669494 34079488
   [Google Scholar]
4. TeunisseA.K. PembrokeL. LeeO.G.M. A scoping review investigating the use of exposure for the treatment and targeted prevention of anxiety and related disorders in young people.JCPP Adv.202222e1208010.1002/jcv2.12080 37431458
   [Google Scholar]
5. EssayliJ.H. VitousekK.M. Cognitive behavioral therapy with eating disordered youth.Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Youth: Tradition and Innovation.1st ed FriedbergR.D. NakamuraB.J. Berlin, GermanySpringer Nature202016318710.1007/978‑1‑0716‑0700‑8_9
   [Google Scholar]
6. MellesH. DuijvisS. JansenA. Inhibitory learning during exposure treatment in anorexia nervosa: A practical guide.Behav. Sci.202313537010.3390/bs13050370 37232607
   [Google Scholar]
7. SimonsL.E. VlaeyenJ.W.S. DeclercqL. Avoid or engage? Outcomes of graded exposure in youth with chronic pain using a sequential replicated single-case randomized design.Pain2020161352053110.1097/j.pain.0000000000001735 31693541
   [Google Scholar]
8. ChristianC. LevinsonC.A. An integrated review of fear and avoidance learning in anxiety disorders and application to eating disorders.New Ideas Psychol.20226710096410.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100964
   [Google Scholar]
9. BautistaC.L. TengE.J. Merging our understanding of anxiety and exposure: Using inhibitory learning to target anxiety sensitivity in exposure therapy.Behav. Modif.202246481983310.1177/01454455211005073 33825494
   [Google Scholar]
10. CraskeM.G. TreanorM. ZbozinekT.D. VervlietB. Optimizing exposure therapy with an inhibitory retrieval approach and the OptEx Nexus.Behav. Res. Ther.202215210406910.1016/j.brat.2022.104069 35325683
    [Google Scholar]
11. CraskeM.G. TreanorM. ConwayC.C. ZbozinekT. VervlietB. Maximizing exposure therapy: An inhibitory learning approach.Behav. Res. Ther.201458102310.1016/j.brat.2014.04.006 24864005
    [Google Scholar]
12. BlakeyS.M. AbramowitzJ.S. Dropping safety aids and maximizing retrieval cues: Two keys to optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy.Cognit. Behav. Pract.201926116617510.1016/j.cbpra.2018.03.001
    [Google Scholar]
13. MetcalfeR.E. PentalP. DukeD.C. Engaging preschool and early elementary school-aged children in exposure and response prevention (ERP).J. Health Psychol.202248311712510.1007/s42843‑022‑00068‑3 35891963
    [Google Scholar]
14. TolinD.F. Inhibitory learning for anxiety-related disorders.Cognit. Behav. Pract.201926122523610.1016/j.cbpra.2018.07.008
    [Google Scholar]
15. MowrerO.H. Two-factor learning theory: Summary and comment.Psychol. Rev.195158535035410.1037/h0058956 14883248
    [Google Scholar]
16. ShapiroJ.P. FriedbergR.D. BardensteinK.K. Child and Adolescent Therapy: Science and Art.Hoboken, New Jersey, USAWiley2006
    [Google Scholar]
17. BeckA.T. EmeryG. GreenbergR.L. Anxiety Disorders and Phobias: A Cognitive Perspective.New York, New York, USAPlenum Press1985
    [Google Scholar]
18. PiacentiniJ. LangleyA. RoblekT. Cognitive-behavioral treatment of childhood OCD.New York, UKOxford University Press2007
    [Google Scholar]
19. HannesdottirD.K. OllendickT.H. The role of emotion regulation in the treatment of child anxiety disorders.Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev.200710327529310.1007/s10567‑007‑0024‑6 17705098
    [Google Scholar]
20. BeckA.T. ClarkD.A. Anxiety and depression: An information processing perspective.Anxiety Res.198811233610.1080/10615808808248218
    [Google Scholar]
21. FoaE.B. KozakM.J. Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information.Psychol. Bull.1986991203510.1037/0033‑2909.99.1.20 2871574
    [Google Scholar]
22. LawC. BoisseauC.L. Exposure and response prevention in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Current perspectives.Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag.2019121167117410.2147/PRBM.S211117 31920413
    [Google Scholar]
23. PeñaA. Inhibitory learning theory and emotional processing theory for proper extinction learning in specific phobias: A comprehensive comparison.McNair Schol Res J2021148
    [Google Scholar]
24. JacobyR.J. AbramowitzJ.S. Inhibitory learning approaches to exposure therapy: A critical review and translation to obsessive-compulsive disorder.Clin. Psychol. Rev.201649284010.1016/j.cpr.2016.07.001 27521505
    [Google Scholar]
25. FriedbergR.D. McClureJ.M. Clinical Practice of Cognitive Therapy with Children and Adolescents: The Nuts and Bolts.2nd edNew York, New York, USAGuilford2015
    [Google Scholar]
26. KendallP.C. RobinJ.A. HedtkeK.A. SuvegC. SchroederF.E. GoschE. Considering CBT with anxious youth? Think exposures.Cognit. Behav. Pract.200512113614810.1016/S1077‑7229(05)80048‑3
    [Google Scholar]
27. BoutonM.E. Context, time, and memory retrieval in the interference paradigms of Pavlovian learning.Psychol. Bull.19931141809910.1037/0033‑2909.114.1.80 8346330
    [Google Scholar]
28. BoutonM.E. KingD.A. Contextual control of the extinction of conditioned fear: Tests for the associative value of the context.J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process.19839324826510.1037/0097‑7403.9.3.248 6886630
    [Google Scholar]
29. PeggS. HillK. ArgirosA. OlatunjiB.O. KujawaA. Cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders in youth: Efficacy, moderators, and new advances in predicting outcomes.Curr. Psychiatry Rep.2022241285385910.1007/s11920‑022‑01384‑7 36370264
    [Google Scholar]
30. KnowlesK.A. OlatunjiB.O. Enhancing inhibitory learning: The utility of variability in exposure.Cognit. Behav. Pract.201926118620010.1016/j.cbpra.2017.12.001 31787834
    [Google Scholar]
31. CraskeM.G. KircanskiK. ZelikowskyM. MystkowskiJ. ChowdhuryN. BakerA. Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy.Behav. Res. Ther.200846152710.1016/j.brat.2007.10.003 18005936
    [Google Scholar]
32. den HollanderM. SmeetsR.J.E.M. van MeulenbroekT. van GeelenL.C.C.M. BaadjouV.A. TimmersI. Exposure in vivo as a treatment approach to target pain-related fear: Theory and new insights from research and clinical practice.Phys. Ther.20221022pzab27010.1093/ptj/pzab270 35084025
    [Google Scholar]
33. BöhnleinJ. AltegoerL. MuckN.K. Factors influencing the success of exposure therapy for specific phobia: A systematic review.Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.202010879682010.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.009 31830494
    [Google Scholar]
34. KennedyS.M. HawksJ.L. Lessons learned from a randomized controlled pilot trial testing an inhibitory learning approach to exposure in anxious youth.Cognit. Behav. Pract.202128224125810.1016/j.cbpra.2020.09.011
    [Google Scholar]
35. OdriozolaP. GeeD.G. Learning about safety: Conditioned inhibition as a novel approach to fear reduction targeting the developing brain.Am. J. Psychiatry2021178213615510.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20020232 33167673
    [Google Scholar]
36. PetermanJS CarperMM KendallPC Testing the habituation-based model of exposures for child and adolescent anxiety.J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol201948(sup1):S34S4410.1080/15374416.2016.116370727355694
    [Google Scholar]
37. HoffmanL.J. ChuB.C. When is seeking safety functional? Taking a pragmatic approach to distinguishing coping from safety.Cognit. Behav. Pract.201926117618510.1016/j.cbpra.2018.11.002
    [Google Scholar]
38. McGuireJ.F. StorchE.A. An inhibitory learning approach to cognitive-behavior therapy for children and adolescents.Cognit. Behav. Pract.201926121422410.1016/j.cbpra.2017.12.003 31205406
    [Google Scholar]
39. RiefW. SperlM.F.J. Braun-KochK. Using expectation violation models to improve the outcome of psychological treatments.Clin. Psychol. Rev.20229810221210.1016/j.cpr.2022.102212 36371900
    [Google Scholar]
40. BjorkR.A. BjorkE.L. Desirable difficulties in theory and practice.J. Appl. Res. Mem. Cogn.20209447547910.1016/j.jarmac.2020.09.003
    [Google Scholar]
41. Ginat-FrolichR. Kara-IvanovA. StraussA.Y. MyersA. HuppertJ.D. Mechanisms underlying interoceptive exposure: belief disconfirmation or extinction? A preliminary study.Cogn. Behav. Ther.202352213214510.1080/16506073.2022.2109511 36217830
    [Google Scholar]
42. MarksE.H. WalkerR.S.W. OjalehtoH. GilliganB.M.A. ZoellnerL.A. Affect labeling to facilitate inhibitory learning: Clinical considerations.Cognit. Behav. Pract.201926120121310.1016/j.cbpra.2018.05.001
    [Google Scholar]
43. AbramowitzJ.S. ArchJ.J. Strategies for improving long-term outcomes in cognitive-behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder: Insights from learning theory.Cognit. Behav. Pract.2014211203110.1016/j.cbpra.2013.06.004
    [Google Scholar]
44. GuzickA.G. ReidA.M. BalkhiA.M. GeffkenG.R. McNamaraJ.P.H. That was easy! Expectancy violations during exposure and response prevention for childhood obsessive-compulsive disorder.Behav. Modif.202044331934210.1177/0145445518813624 30449128
    [Google Scholar]
45. MilgramL. SheehanK. CainG. Comparison of patient-reported distress during harm avoidance and incompleteness exposure tasks for youth with OCD.J. Obsessive Compuls. Relat. Disord.20223510076010.1016/j.jocrd.2022.100760
    [Google Scholar]
46. KnowlesK.A. JessupS.C. OlatunjiB.O. Facing uncertainty: A comparison of hierarchical and variable exposure interventions for contamination fear.J. Obsessive Compuls. Relat. Disord.20233610077710.1016/j.jocrd.2022.100777 36582425
    [Google Scholar]
47. WheatonM.G. ChenS.R. Homework completion in treating obsessive-compulsive disorder with exposure and ritual prevention.Cognit. Ther. Res.202145223624910.1007/s10608‑020‑10125‑0
    [Google Scholar]
48. SimonsJ.S. GaherR.M. The distress tolerance scale: Development and validation of a self-report measure.Motiv. Emot.20052928310210.1007/s11031‑005‑7955‑3
    [Google Scholar]
49. LinehanM.M. Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder.New York, USAGuilford Press1993
    [Google Scholar]
50. BanneyerK.N. BoninL. PriceK. GoodmanW.K. StorchE.A. Cognitive behavioral therapy for childhood anxiety disorders: A review of recent advances.Curr. Psychiatry Rep.20182086510.1007/s11920‑018‑0924‑9 30056623
    [Google Scholar]
51. BergezK.C. RamirezA.C. GrebeS.C. Efficacy of exposure-based therapy for youth anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder. PerisT.S. StorchE.A. McGuireJ.F. Cambridge, MAAcademic Press2020213710.1016/B978‑0‑12‑815915‑6.00002‑0
    [Google Scholar]
52. McMillanH.C.K. FrancisS.E. Rith-NajarianL. ChorpitaB.F. Evidence base update:50 years of research on treatment for child and adolescent anxiety.J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol.20164529111310.1080/15374416.2015.1046177 26087438
    [Google Scholar]
53. PalitzS.A. DavisP. KendallP.C. Anxiety disorders.Treatment of disorders in childhood and adolescence. PrinsteinM.J. YoungstromE.A. MashE.J. BarkleyR.A. New York201928131010.1007/978‑3‑030‑30687‑8_7
    [Google Scholar]
54. PerisT.S. CaporinoN.E. O’RourkeS. Therapist-reported features of exposure tasks that predict differential treatment outcomes for youth with anxiety.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry201756121043105210.1016/j.jaac.2017.10.001 29173738
    [Google Scholar]
55. SilkJ.S. TanP.Z. LadouceurC.D. A randomized clinical trial comparing individual cognitive behavioral therapy and child-centered therapy for child anxiety disorders.J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol.201847454255410.1080/15374416.2016.1138408 26983904
    [Google Scholar]
56. WhitesideS.P.H. SimL.A. MorrowA.S. meta-analysis to guide the enhancement of CBT for childhood anxiety: Exposure over anxiety management.Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev.202023110212110.1007/s10567‑019‑00303‑2 31628568
    [Google Scholar]
57. BilekE. TomlinsonR.C. WhitemanA.S. Exposure-focused CBT outperforms relaxation-based control in an RCT of treatment for child and adolescent anxiety.J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol.202251441041810.1080/15374416.2021.1901230 33905281
    [Google Scholar]
58. AleC.M. McCarthyD.M. RothschildL.M. WhitesideS.P.H. Components of cognitive behavioral therapy related to outcomes in child anxiety disorders.Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev.201518324025110.1007/s10567‑015‑0184‑8 26001645
    [Google Scholar]
59. VillabøM.A. NarayananM. ComptonS.N. KendallP.C. NeumerS.P. Cognitive–behavioral therapy for youth anxiety: An effectiveness evaluation in community practice.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol.201886975176410.1037/ccp0000326 30138014
    [Google Scholar]
60. FrankB. McKayD. Introduction to the special series: Clinical applications of the inhibitory learning model.Cognit. Behav. Pract.201926112712910.1016/j.cbpra.2018.12.002
    [Google Scholar]
61. McNallyR.J. Anxiety sensitivity and panic disorder.Biol. Psychiatry2002521093894610.1016/S0006‑3223(02)01475‑0 12437935
    [Google Scholar]
62. CannonC.J. MakolB.A. KeeleyL.M. A paradigm for understanding adolescent social anxiety with unfamiliar peers: Conceptual foundations and directions for future research.Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev.202023333836410.1007/s10567‑020‑00314‑4 32140896
    [Google Scholar]
63. KendallP.C. NorrisL.A. RabnerJ.C. CraneM.E. RifkinL.S. Intolerance of uncertainty and parental accommodation: Promising targets for personalized intervention for youth anxiety.Curr. Psychiatry Rep.20202294910.1007/s11920‑020‑01170‑3 32666277
    [Google Scholar]
64. PalitzS.A. RifkinL.S. NorrisL.A. But what will the results be?: Learning to tolerate uncertainty is associated with treatment-produced gains.J. Anxiety Disord.20196810214610.1016/j.janxdis.2019.102146 31669785
    [Google Scholar]
65. FreestonM. TipladyA. MawnL. BottesiG. ThwaitesS. Towards a model of uncertainty distress in the context of coronavirus (COVID-19).Cogn. Behav. Therap.20203e3110.1017/S1754470X2000029X
    [Google Scholar]
66. FriedbergR. GoodmanC. ChoateE. Intolerance of uncertainty in pediatric patients: A transdiagnostic pathway to multiple disorders.Med. Res. Arch.2022101110.18103/mra.v10i11.3314
    [Google Scholar]
67. ZemestaniM. HeshmatiR. ComerJ.S. KendallP.C. Intolerance of uncertainty as a transdiagnostic vulnerability to anxiety disorders in youth.Curr. Psychol.202242269662697810.1007/s12144‑022‑03645‑3
    [Google Scholar]
68. SperlingJ. The role of intolerance of uncertainty in treatment for pediatric anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder.Evid. Based Pract. Child Adolesc. Ment. Health2022202211010.1080/23794925.2022.2051215
    [Google Scholar]
69. CooperS.E. DunsmoorJ.E. Fear conditioning and extinction in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review.Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.2021129759410.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.07.026 34314751
    [Google Scholar]
70. SimonsL.E. KaczynskiK.J. The Fear Avoidance model of chronic pain: Examination for pediatric application.J. Pain201213982783510.1016/j.jpain.2012.05.002 22832693
    [Google Scholar]
71. SimonsL.E. HarrisonL.E. O’BrienS.F. Graded exposure treatment for adolescents with chronic pain (GET Living): Protocol for a randomized controlled trial enhanced with single case experimental design.Contemp. Clin. Trials Commun.20191610044810.1016/j.conctc.2019.100448 31650069
    [Google Scholar]
72. BawejaR. ArshadS.H. SamselC. FriedbergR.D. Chronic pain and its impact on child mental health: management challenges and clinical guidance for child and adolescent psychiatrists.J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry202261121411141410.1016/j.jaac.2022.04.008 35483656
    [Google Scholar]
73. SchemerL. HessC.W. Van OrdenA.R. Enhancing exposure treatment for youths with chronic pain: Co-design and qualitative approach.J. Particip. Med.202315e4129210.2196/41292 36892929
    [Google Scholar]
74. CardiV. LeppanenJ. ColsM.D. CampbellI.C. TreasureJ. A case series to investigate food‐related fear learning and extinction using in vivo food exposure in anorexia nervosa: A clinical application of the inhibitory learning framework.Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev.201927217318110.1002/erv.2639 30198606
    [Google Scholar]
75. EssayliJ.H. ForrestL.N. ZickgrafH.F. StefanoE.C. KellerK.L. Lane-LoneyS.E. The impact of between‐session habituation, within‐session habituation, and weight gain on response to food exposure for adolescents with eating disorders.Int. J. Eat. Disord.202356363764510.1002/eat.23894 36626314
    [Google Scholar]
76. LavenderJ.M. De YoungK.P. WonderlichS.A. Daily patterns of anxiety in anorexia nervosa: Associations with eating disorder behaviors in the natural environment.J. Abnorm. Psychol.2013122367268310.1037/a0031823 23647124
    [Google Scholar]
77. SchaumbergK. ReillyE.E. GorrellS. Conceptualizing eating disorder psychopathology using an anxiety disorders framework: Evidence and implications for exposure-based clinical research.Clin. Psychol. Rev.20218310195210.1016/j.cpr.2020.101952 33221621
    [Google Scholar]
78. SchynsG. RoefsA. JansenA. Tackling sabotaging cognitive processes to reduce overeating; expectancy violation during food cue exposure.Physiol. Behav.202022211292410.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112924 32339524
    [Google Scholar]
79. ButlerR.M. HeimbergR.G. Exposure therapy for eating disorders: A systematic review.Clin. Psychol. Rev.20207810185110.1016/j.cpr.2020.101851 32224363
    [Google Scholar]
80. Lane-LoneyS.E. ZickgrafH.F. OrnsteinR.M. MahrF. EssayliJ.H. A cognitive-behavioral family-based protocol for the primary presentations of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID): Case examples and clinical research findings.Cognit. Behav. Pract.202229231833410.1016/j.cbpra.2020.06.010
    [Google Scholar]
81. NorrisL.A. KendallP.C. Moderators of outcomes for youth anxiety treatments: Current findings and future directions.J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol.202150445046310.1080/15374416.2020.1833337 33140992
    [Google Scholar]
82. PlaistedH. WaiteP. CreswellC. Optimising exposure for adolescents with public speaking anxiety: Affect labelling or positive coping statements?Behav. Res. Ther.202214810399710.1016/j.brat.2021.103997 34847497
    [Google Scholar]
83. LebowitzE.R. ManoZ.S. Not so common anymore? Beyond the common factor understanding of the role of alliance in youth psychotherapy.Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract.202229214014210.1037/cps0000088
    [Google Scholar]
84. DoomJ.R. RozenmanM. FoxK.R. The transdiagnostic origins of anxiety and depression during the pediatric period: Linking NIMH research domain criteria (RDoC) constructs to ecological systems. Dev Psychopathol 2021335159961910.1017/S0954579421000559 35281333
    [Google Scholar]
85. KempJ. BenitoK. HerrenJ. BrownZ. FrankH.E. FreemanJ. Exposure to exposure: A protocol for leveraging exposure principles during training to address therapist-level barriers to exposure implementation.Front. Psychiatry202314109625910.3389/fpsyt.2023.1096259 36873204
    [Google Scholar]
86. SchrigerS.H. BoroshokA.L. KhanA.N. WangL. Becker-HaimesE.M. A case example of community-based supervision to overcome barriers and support the implementation of exposure therapy.Psychol. Serv.202320234335210.1037/ser0000665 35549303
    [Google Scholar]
87. WhitesideS.P.H. DeaconB.J. BenitoK. StewartE. Factors associated with practitioners’ use of exposure therapy for childhood anxiety disorders.J. Anxiety Disord.201640293610.1016/j.janxdis.2016.04.001 27085463
    [Google Scholar]
88. ReidA.M. GuzickA.G. FernandezA.G. Exposure therapy for youth with anxiety: Utilization rates and predictors of implementation in a sample of practicing clinicians from across the United States.J. Anxiety Disord.20185881710.1016/j.janxdis.2018.06.002 29929139
    [Google Scholar]
89. PittigA. KotterR. HoyerJ. The struggle of behavioral therapists with exposure: Self-reported practicability, negative beliefs, and therapist distress about exposure-based interventions.Behav. Ther.201950235336610.1016/j.beth.2018.07.003 30824251
    [Google Scholar]
90. BlakeyS.M. ThomasB.E. FarrellN.R. Addressing common myths and mistaken beliefs in the treatment of youth with OCD.The Clinicians Guide to Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy for Childhood Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder.1st ed StorchE.A. McGuireJ.F. McKayD. Cambridge, MassachusettsAcademic Press201820323310.1016/B978‑0‑12‑811427‑8.00011‑3
    [Google Scholar]
91. MichaelS.T. BlakeyS.M. SherrillA.M. AosvedA.C. Exposure therapy training and supervision: Research-informed strategies for addressing barriers to adoption and dissemination.Train. Educ. Prof. Psychol.20211529710510.1037/tep0000304
    [Google Scholar]
92. HaimesB.E.M. StewartR.E. FrankH.E. It’s all in the name: Why exposure therapy could benefit from a new one.Curr. Psychol.202221710.1007/s12144‑022‑03286‑6 35669210
    [Google Scholar]