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- Volume 13, Issue 8, 2014
CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets - CNS & Neurological Disorders) - Volume 13, Issue 8, 2014
Volume 13, Issue 8, 2014
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Role of Nanomedicines in Delivery of Anti-Acetylcholinesterase Compounds to the Brain in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifarious progressive neuro-degenerative state among elders. Potentiation of central cholinergic activity by using acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEI) is considered as one of the major pharmacological means for the management of AD. Investigation in the past and the rest decades revealed that many drugs with anti-AD activity, including the AChEI have been discovered from natural and synthetic origin but getting success in their brain delivery is still limited. However, barriers like blood-brain barrier, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier and p-glycoproteins restrict the effective and safe drug delivery to the brain in patients with AD. Advancement in nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems over the last decade exemplifies the effective drug delivery and targeting to the brain with controlled rate in various diseases including AD. Till recently, diverse kinds of nanomedicines for targeting of the anti-AD drugs in brain are being studied. In this review, we have highlighted the recent progress in AChEI, challenges in their effective brain delivery (physicochemical properties and biological barriers) and possible nanotechnology-based strategies that can deliver drugs across the CNS barriers during AD.
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Implication of Gut Microbiota in Human Health
Authors: Imran Khan, Muhammad Yasir, Esam I. Azhar, Taha Kumosani, Elie K. Barbour, Fehmida Bibi and Mohammad A. KamalGut-microbiota (GM) is considered a hidden metabolic organ of the human body, providing biochemical pathways which are absent in the host. Balanced diet with calorie restriction (CR) promotes growth of healthy microbiota, leading to longevity by down-regulating inflammatory responses. While, dysbiosis leads to body dysfunction, inducing metabolic disorders, causing poor epithelial architecture, and impeding the development of mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue, resulting in with reduced T and B cell populations, rendering the body prone to infections, cancer and allergy. The GM enzymes activity is a new risk factor for cancer while gut-derived interleukin-6 is associated with hepatocellular carcinoma development. GM can also influence the brain biochemistry and emotional behavior. The altered GM affects the genes involved in second messenger pathway and long-term potentiation, leading to their differential expression in the hippocampus, cortex, striatum and cerebellum. In addition, the dysbiotic GM is associated with autistic disorder. Living with dysbiotic GM is possible with consequences of serious impairments.
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Gene Expression Analysis Approach to Establish Possible Links Between Parkinson's Disease, Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases
Non-communicable chronic diseases have been apparently established as threat to human health, and are currently the world’s main killer. Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), cancer, diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases are collectively amounting to more than 60% of non-communicable disease burden across world. Tremendous advancements in healthcare enabled us to fight several health problems primarily infectious diseases. However, this increased longevity where in many cases an individual suffers from several such chronic diseases simultaneously, making treatment complex. Finding whether diseases can coexist in an individual by chance or there exists a possible association between them is vital. Our goal is to establish possible existing link among CVD, cancer and Parkinson's disease (PD) for better understanding of the associated molecular network. In this study, we integrated multiple dataset retrieved from the National Centre for Biotechnology Information's Gene Expression Omnibus database, and took a systems-biology approach to compare and distinguish the molecular network associated with PD, cancer and CVD. We identified 230, 308 and 1619 differentially expressed genes for CVD, cancer and PD dataset respectively using cut off p value<0.5 and fold change >2. We integrated these data with known pathways using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis tool and found following common pathways associated with all three diseases to be most affected; epithelial adherens junction signaling, remodelling of epithelial adherens junctions, role of BRCA1 in DNA damage response, sphingomyelin metabolism, 3- phosphoinositide biosynthesis, acute myeloid leukemia signaling, type I diabetes mellitus signaling, agrin interactions at neuromuscular junction, role of IL-17A in arthritis, and antigen presentation pathways. In conclusion, CVD, cancer and PD appear tightly associated at molecular level.
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Identification of Potent Caspase-3 Inhibitors for Treatment of Multi- Neurodegenerative Diseases Using Pharmacophore Modeling and Docking Approaches
Neurodegenerative disorders are due to excessive neuronal apoptosis and the caspase-3 plays a key role in the apoptotic pathway. The caspase-3 inhibition may be a validated therapeutic approach for neurodegenerative disorders and an interesting target for molecular modeling studies using both Ligand and structure based approaches. In view of the above we have generated the Ligand based pharmacophore model using the Discovery studio 2.0 software. In addition to this a structure based approach has been used to validate the developed pharmacophoric features to gain a deeper insight into its molecular recognition process. This validated pharmacophore and the docking model was then implemented as a query for pharmacophore based virtual screening to prioritize the probable hits for the Caspase-3. Two ligands, ZINC12405015 and ZINC12405043 were finally selected on the basis of their fit values and docking scores. This study also reveals the important amino acids viz. His-121, Ser-205, Arg-207 which were found to be playing crucial role in the binding of the selected compounds within the active site of caspase-3.
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The Implications of Sortilin/Vps10p Domain Receptors in Neurological and Human Diseases
The neurotensin receptor-3 also known as sortilin is part of the new receptor family of vacuolar protein sorting 10 protein domain. Growing evidence show that the vacuolar protein sorting 10 protein domain family is implicated as a genetic risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, frontotemporal lobar degeneration, and Parkinson's disease, in addition to links associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus, lysosomal disorders, cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis. In fact, sortilin expression is elevated in many human cell lines controlling the trafficking and release of neurotrophins. Hence, not surprisingly the imbalance of neurotrophin signaling is implicated in several human diseases. The fine regulation of the growth factor, brain derived nerve factor by sortilin mediates both neuronal and tumor cell survival, whereas in Alzheimer’s disease sortilin mediated beta secretase-1 trafficking increases the cleavage of the beta-amyloid precursor protein. Perturbation of the autocrine/paracrine loop of neurotrophins in combination with the cell surface interaction of sortilin with neurotensin receptor 1 or 2 or tyrosine kinase receptor A or B are dramatically upregulated in both neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. In cardiovascular diseases, the circulatory low-density lipoprotein is closely correlated with sortilin expression in hepatocytes. Herein, this review discusses the multifaceted role played by sortilin and its interacting partners in human disease which could be interesting novel target(s) in drug discovery. Nevertheless, completely challenging the function of sortilin could prove unfavorable given the important universal role of sortilin plays in the body. Hence, metabolism disorders could be relieved with specific targeted therapeutic challenge of sortilin function.
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Molecular Dynamics and Regulation of Butyrylcholinesterase Cholinergic Activity by RNA Binding Proteins
Authors: Iqra Sohail and Sajid RashidRNA recognition motif (RRM) is the most abundant RNA-binding domain, mainly known to involve in regulating post-transcriptional processes like intron splicing, stability and mRNA intracellular translocation. As RNA metabolism in neurons attributes a significant proportionality towards neurodegenerative diseases, potential role of RRM domains has become more conspicuous. Here, through flexible protein-protein docking and molecular dynamics simulation approaches, we postulate biochemically auspicious interactions occurring between Butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and RRM domains of transactive response DNA binding protein, embryonic lethal abnormal vision like protein 4 and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A1 protein. Through a comprehensive analysis of these interactions, we observed an exclusive binding behavior for RRM domains. Evidently, upon binding to RRMs, omega loop of BuChE attains a closed conformation and masks the access of substrate to the catalytic triad and oxyanion hole. Moreover, prominent adjustments were detected in RRM-bound BuChE at the peripheral anionic, choline binding and proton transfer sites. We propose that interaction of RNA-binding proteins to BuChE may decrease its ability to hydrolyze multiple choline esters, which may contribute in delayed progression of poor cognition during neurodegenerative disorders.
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Inflammation in Ischemic Stroke: Mechanisms, Consequences and Possible Drug Targets
Authors: Muzamil Ahmad, Nawab J. Dar, Zubair S. Bhat, Aehtesham Hussain, Ayatullah Shah, Hao Liu and Steven H. GrahamIschemic stroke is caused when blood flow to the brain is hampered, leading to instant deficiency of nutrients and oxygen required for normal brain functioning. Reperfusion can alleviate damage from stroke if performed immediately after the onset of ischemia however the efficacy of reperfusion is tempered by secondary injury mechanisms. This multifarious sequence of events leads to the commencement of deleterious cycles of inflammation, oxidant stress and apoptosis that finally culminate in delayed death of neuronal cells even when the brain is effectively reperfused. Wealth of data from clinical as well as experimental studies points to a prominent role of inflammation in secondary injury. In this review we will discuss, in detail, the cellular and molecular mediators of inflammation and their possible therapeutic targets in both experimental and clinical forms of stroke.
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Sub-Chronic Exposure of Non-Observable Adverse Effect Dose of Terbufos Sulfone: Neuroinflammation in Diabetic and Non-Diabetic Rats
Neuroinflammation (NI) contributes to the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disorders. Epidemiological and a few animal studies have shown that chronic exposure of organophosphorus compounds (OPC) may cause neuronal injury and predispose to neuro- as well as psychotic disorders in conjunction with NI. However, in vivo studies are meager and do not represent the entire toxicologically diversified OPC. The present study aimed to investigate the result of non-observable adverse effect level dose of a highly toxic OPC, terbufos sulfone (TBS), on sub-chronic exposure on the status of proinflammatory cytokines; interleukin-1β, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α in rats brain. In addition, lactate dehydrogenase, nitric oxide and reduced glutathione were also determined in brain. Red blood cell acetylcholinesterase was measured weekly. Total of four groups’ saline control, diabetes control, non-diabetes TBS and diabetes treated with TBS were employed in the study. Control groups received saline and the experimental groups were injected with TBS intraperitonealy for fifteen days daily. Twenty four hours after the last injection, the animals were euthanized for collection of brain and serum samples. The study showed significant elevation of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α and lactate dehydrogenase in brain of TBS treated groups, while the presence of interleukin-1β was significantly greater in the non-diabetes TBS treated group when compared with saline control. The increase was observed to be independent of acetylcholinesterase level and diabetes condition. The change in reduced glutathione was modest as compared with control. Based on the findings, the study concludes that the non-observable adverse effect level dose of TBS has potential to cause NI and subsequent neurodegeneration, a remarkable sign of many chronic neuronal and psychotic disorders. Further studies with prolonged exposure and other neurodegenerative parameters are warranted.
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Effect of Electromagnetic Radiations on Neurodegenerative Diseases- Technological Revolution as a Curse in Disguise
In the present developed world, all of us are flooded with electromagnetic radiations (EMR) emanating from generation and transmission of electricity, domestic appliances and industrial equipments, to telecommunications and broadcasting. We have been exposed to EMR for last many decades; however their recent steady increase from artificial sources has been reported as millions of antennas and satellites irradiate the global population round the clock, year round. Needless to say, these are so integral to modern life that interaction with them on a daily basis is seemingly inevitable; hence, the EMR exposure load has increased to a point where their health effects are becoming a major concern. Delicate and sensitive electrical system of human body is affected by consistent penetration of electromagnetic frequencies causing DNA breakages and chromosomal aberrations. Technological innovations came with Pandora's Box of hazardous consequences including neurodegenerative disorders, hearing disabilities, diabetes, congenital abnormalities, infertility, cardiovascular diseases and cancer to name few, all on a sharp rise. Electromagnetic non-ionizing radiations pose considerable health threat with prolonged exposure. Mobile phones are usually held near to the brain and manifest progressive structural or functional alterations in neurons leading to neurodegenerative diseases and neuronal death. This has provoked awareness among both the general public and scientific community and international bodies acknowledge that further systematic research is needed. The aim of the present review was to have an insight in whether and how cumulative electro-magnetic field exposure is a risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders.
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Down Regulated Expression of Claudin-1 and Claudin-5 and Up Regulation of β-Catenin: Association with Human Glioma Progression
Glioblastoma multiforme is the most common form of intracranial malignancy in humans, and is characterized by aggressive tumor growth, tissue invasion and neurodegenerative properties. The present study investigated the expression status of tight junction associated Claudin 1 (CLDN1), Claudin 5 (CLDN5) and Adheren junction associated β- catenin genes in the light of their critical role in the progression of both low- and high-grade human gliomas. Using quantitative PCR and Western blot methods the mRNA and protein status of CLDN1, CLDN5 and β-catenin genes were studied in a total of 25 human gliomas of World Health Organization (WHO) grades I-IV, non-cancerous control brain tissues and their corresponding model cell lines (C6, U373, U118, T98 and U87MG). Quantitative analysis of the transcript and protein expression data showed that CLDN1 and CLDN5 were significantly down regulated (p=<0.001) in tumors of all four grades and model cell lines. This decrease in expression pattern was in accordance with the increasing grade of the tumor. A 4-fold stronger reduction of CLDN1 when compared to CLDN5 was evident in high-grade tumors. Interestingly, β-catenin was up regulated in all tumor types we studied (p=<0.005). Our findings, suggest that down regulated CLDN1 and CLDN5 genes have potential relevance in relation to the progression of glioblastoma multiforme. Hence, their therapeutic targeting may provide both insight and leads to control the cellular proliferation and subsequent invasiveness among affected individuals.
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Fetzima (levomilnacipran), a Drug for Major Depressive Disorder as a Dual Inhibitor for Human Serotonin Transporters and Beta-Site Amyloid Precursor Protein Cleaving Enzyme-1
Pharmacological management of Major Depressive Disorder includes the use of serotonin reuptake inhibitors which targets serotonin transporters (SERT) to increase the synaptic concentrations of serotonin. Beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE-1) is responsible for amyloid β plaque formation. Hence it is an interesting target for Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapy. This study describes molecular interactions of a new Food and Drug Administration approved antidepressant drug named ‘Fetzima’ with BACE-1 and SERT. Fetzima is chemically known as levomilnacipran. The study has explored a possible link between the treatment of Depression and AD. ‘Autodock 4.2’ was used for docking study. The free energy of binding (ΔG) values for ‘levomilnacipran-SERT’ interaction and ‘levomilnacipran-BACE1’ interaction were found to be -7.47 and -8.25 kcal/mol, respectively. Levomilnacipran was found to interact with S438, known to be the most important amino acid residue of serotonin binding site of SERT during ‘levomilnacipran-SERT’ interaction. In the case of ‘levomilnacipran-BACE1’ interaction, levomilnacipran interacted with two very crucial aspartic acid residues of BACE-1, namely, D32 and D228. These residues are accountable for the cleavage of amyloid precursor protein and the subsequent formation of amyloid β plaques in AD brain. Hence, Fetzima (levomilnacipran) might act as a potent dual inhibitor of SERT and BACE-1 and expected to form the basis of a future dual therapy against depression and AD. It is an established fact that development of AD is associated with Major Depressive Disorder. Therefore, the design of new BACE-1 inhibitors based on antidepressant drug scaffolds would be particularly beneficial.
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Status of Acetylcholinesterase and Butyrylcholinesterase in Alzheimer's Disease and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Gohar Mushtaq, Nigel H. Greig, Jalaluddin A. Khan and Mohammad A. KamalBoth Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) share the presence of systemic and neuro-inflammation, enhanced production and accumulation of β -amyloid peptide and abnormal levels of the enzymes acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). Altered levels of AChE and BuChE both in AD as well as in T2DM imply that those two enzymes may be playing a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of the two disorders. AD and T2DM are both characterized by elevated levels of AChE and BuChE in the plasma. On the other hand, in AD the brain levels of AChE go down while those of BuChE go up, resulting in deregulation in balance between AChE and BuChE. This imbalance and change in the AChE/BuChE ratio causes cholinergic deficit in the brain, i.e. deficiency in the brain neurotransmitter acetylcholine. With better understanding of the inter-relationship of AChE and BuChE levels in normality as well as abnormality, AD and T2DM can be effectively treated. Thus, general cholinesterase inhibitors that inhibit both AChE and BuChE as well as highly selective BuChE inhibitors may have potential therapeutic benefits in the treatment of AD and other related dementias.
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Current Challenges to Overcome in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Associated Neurological Disorders
Authors: Nazir M. Khan, Ausaf Ahmad, Rajesh K. Tiwari, Mohammad A. Kamal, Gohar Mushtaq and Ghulam M. AshrafThe increasing worldwide prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and associated neurological disorders (NDs), such as Alzheimer disease and Parkinson’s disease, have raised concerns about increasing health care and financial burden. Due to the overwhelming growth rate of T2DM and its strong association with NDs, there is an ever-growing and an urgent need to improve the diagnosis and management of the disease. Major hurdles in the management of T2DM comprise of striving for glycemic targets, polypharmacy, patient adherence and clinical inertia. The challenges occurring in the treatment of T2DM are mainly attributed to the complex heterogeneous nature of the disease and its close association with a wide variety of neurological, metabolic and cardiovascular disorders. To overcome these challenges, authors propose to focus on the treatment strategies that employ shared pathogenesis and common molecular denominators involved in the aetiology of T2DM and associated NDs. Impaired insulin signalling (as a result of perturbed redox status), insulin resistance and mitochondrial dysfunction are key molecular events that may lead to the pathogenesis of T2DM and associated NDs. However, effective management of these therapeutic strategies requires holistic experimental evidence from animal as well as clinical human studies. Therefore, a shift in the treatment paradigm from single point glycemic control to shared pathogenesis control would be an ideal approach to combat the alarming progression of diabetes and associated NDs. Therapeutic interventions focused on shared molecular pathogenesis, along with effective glycemic control, may provide protection from associated NDs.
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Flavonoids Isolated from Rumex aquaticus Exhibit Neuroprotective and Neurorestorative Properties by Enhancing Neurite Outgrowth and Synaptophysin
Authors: Orsolya Orban-Gyapai, Aparna Raghavan, Andrea Vasas, Peter Forgo, Judit Hohmann and Zahoor A. ShahThere is heightened interest in the field of stroke recovery as there is need for agents that would prevent the debilitating effects of the disorder, thereby tremendously reducing the societal and economic costs associated with it. In this study, the isolation of two flavonoids - quercetin-3-O-galactoside (1) and quercetin-3-O-arabinoside (2) - from Rumex aquaticus (western dock) and their neuroprotective effects were reported in the oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model of in vitro ischemia using rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell line. Bioassay-guided fractionation of the ethyl-acetate extract of Rumex aquaticus L. afforded the isolation of compounds 1 and 2. The structures of compounds were established on the basis of spectroscopic analyses (UV, mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). Both compounds were isolated for the first time from this species. In the course of the pharmacological experiments it was detected that these flavonoids at 10 μM concentration significantly improved cell survival in the oxygen-glucose deprivation model of ischemia. Moreover, they also increased neurite outgrowth in differentiated PC12 cells subjected to ischemic insult. Investigations on the cellular mechanism for the observed effect revealed that compound 1 (10 μM) enhances the expression of synaptophysin - a marker of synapses, and an indicator of synaptic plasticity. Rapid restoration of neurological function following injury is paramount to the prevention of debilitating consequences of ischemic stroke. This combination of neuroprotection and neuritogenic potential could be particularly useful in the recovery phase of stroke.
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The Neuroprotective Mechanism of Erythropoietin-TAT Fusion Protein Against Neurodegeneration from Ischemic Brain Injury
Authors: Ping Liu, Xiaolei Liu, Anthony Kian-Fong Liou, Juan Xing, Zheng Jing, Xunming Ji, Xiangrong Liu, Haiping Zhao, Feng Yan, Jun Chen, Guodong Cao and Yumin LuoAims: To compare the neuroprotection of erythropoietin (EPO) and EPO fusion protein containing transduction domain derived from HIV TAT (EPO-TAT) against ischemic brain injury, inclusive of the side effect, and explore the mechanism underlying the role of EPO-TAT in a transient focal cerebral ischemia model in rats. Methods: Transient focal ischemia was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats. Rats were treated, respectively, with following regimens: saline, 1000 U/kg EPO, 5000 U/kg EPO, 1000 U/kg EPO-TAT, 1000 U/kg EPOTAT + 5 μl of 10 mM LY294002 (or/plus 5 μl of 5 mM PD98059). Neurological deficit scores, infarct volume, and hematologic side effect were assessed at 72 hours after MCAO. Apoptotic cells were determined with TUNEL staining. The expression and localization of phosphorylated AKT (pAKT) and phosphorylated ERK (pERK) were detected with Western blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence, respectively. Results: 1000 U/kg EPO-TAT exhibited a comparable neuroprotection to 5000 U/kg EPO, as evidenced by a comparable attenuation in neurological deficit, infarct volume, and number of apoptotic cells in the rat ischemic cortex after MCAO. The pAKT and pERK levels were significantly elevated solely in neurons of rodents receiving EPO or EPO-TAT treatments, suggesting the concurrent activation of these two pathways. Specific inhibition of either AKT or ERK pathway partially abolished EPO-TAT protection, but exhibited no influence on the activation status of its counterpart, suggesting no cross-modulation between these two protective pathways. Conclusion: Our study indicates that EPO-TAT at 1000 U/kg displays neuroprotection with no detectable side effects. The mechanism for neuroprotection may be attributable to the simultaneous activation of the AKT and ERK pathways, which preserve neuronal cell viability and attenuate behavioral deficits.
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Poly (D,L-Lactide-co-Glycolide) Nanoparticles Loaded with Cerebrolysin Display Neuroprotective Activity in a Rat Model of Concussive Head Injury
Cerebrolysin (CBL) is a neuroprotective agent in central nervous system (CNS) injury and stimulates neurorepair processes. Several studies in our laboratory suggest that CBL administered through nanowired technology may have superior neuroprotective efficacy in CNS trauma. In this investigation, we compared the neuroprotective efficacy of poly-lactide-co-glycolide nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with CBL vs free CBL in a rat model of concussive head injury (CHI). Free CBL or CBL loaded NPs was administered 30 min to 1 h after CHI and animals were sacrificed 5 h later. Changes in blood-brain barrier and brain edema formation were measured as parameters of neuroprotection in CHI after giving CBL alone or as the nanodelivered compound. Our results clearly show that delivery of CBL by NPs has superior neuroprotective effects following CHI as compared to normal CBL. This suggests that CBL delivered by NPs could have robust neuroprotective action in CNS trauma. These findings have potential clinical relevance with regard to nanodelivery of CBL, a feature that requires further investigation.
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Volumes & issues
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Volume 23 (2024)
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Volume 22 (2023)
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Volume 21 (2022)
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Volume 20 (2021)
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Volume 19 (2020)
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Volume 18 (2019)
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Volume 17 (2018)
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Volume 16 (2017)
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Volume 15 (2016)
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Volume 14 (2015)
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Volume 13 (2014)
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Volume 12 (2013)
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Volume 11 (2012)
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Volume 10 (2011)
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Volume 9 (2010)
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Volume 8 (2009)
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Volume 7 (2008)
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Volume 6 (2007)
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Volume 5 (2006)