Skip to content
2000
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Current Diabetes Reviews
  4. Volume 21, Issue 6
  5. Article
Volume 21, Issue 6
  • ISSN: 1573-3998
  • E-ISSN: 1875-6417

Abstract

Diabetic foot wounds and infections pose a significant and evolving challenge in diabetes care. Diabetic wound healing has become a major global concern for a very long time. Continuous research has been conducted to increase the healing process in diabetic ulcers to the rate of amputation. Wound healing is prolonged in diabetic patients due to various conditions, such as high glucose levels, neuropathy, poor blood circulation, and prolonged inflammation around the limbs, which causes the healing to be delayed compared to normal patients. Understanding the complexity of chronic foot wounds and the management and proper treatment would lead to a decrease in the risk of amputation. The medical team all over the world is constantly researching to lower the risk.

This review paper offers a compelling journey through the multifaceted world of diabetic foot wounds and infections. It underscores the urgency of understanding classification, tackling multidrug resistance, and harnessing microbial insights to revolutionize the treatment and management of diabetic foot complications. Furthermore, it unveils state-of-the-art diagnostics, heralding a brighter future in the battle against this debilitating complication of diabetes.

© 2025 Bentham Science Publishers
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/cdr/10.2174/0115733998287694240514110935
2024-05-24
2025-05-07

  • From This Site

    /content/journals/cdr/10.2174/0115733998287694240514110935
    dcterms_title,dcterms_subject,pub_keyword
    -contentType:Contributor -contentType:Concept -contentType:Institution
    10
    5
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

References

  1. LevinM. Management of the diabetic foot: Preventing amputation.South. Med. J.2002951102010.1097/00007611‑200295010‑00004 11827238
     [Google Scholar]
  2. BoultonA.J.M. VileikyteL. TennvallR.G. ApelqvistJ. The global burden of diabetic foot disease.Lancet200536694981719172410.1016/S0140‑6736(05)67698‑2 16291066
     [Google Scholar]
  3. HeinrichM. ForewordA.D.K. EpilogueJ.D.P. MaizelsI. by D.; Gibbons, S.J. Pharmacogn. Phytother.2004
     [Google Scholar]
  4. ShankarE.M. MohanV. PremalathaG. SrinivasanR.S. UshaA.R. Bacterial etiology of diabetic foot infections in South India.Eur. J. Intern. Med.200516856757010.1016/j.ejim.2005.06.016 16314237
     [Google Scholar]
  5. BandykD.F. The diabetic foot: Pathophysiology, evaluation, and treatment.Semin. Vasc. Surg.2018312-4434810.1053/j.semvascsurg.2019.02.001 30876640
     [Google Scholar]
  6. LipskyB.A. SennevilleÉ. AbbasZ.G. Guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of foot infection in persons with diabetes (IWGDF 2019 update).Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.202036S1e328010.1002/dmrr.3280 32176444
     [Google Scholar]
  7. NicolucciAc. Fact and figures about diabetes in Italy.Assist. Inferm. Ric.201130210010610.1702/845.9396 21747574
     [Google Scholar]
  8. BurgessJ.L. WyantW.A. AbujamraB.A. KirsnerR.S. JozicI. Diabetic Wound-Healing.Science. Medicina20215710107210.3390/medicina57101072
     [Google Scholar]
  9. ChangM. NguyenT.T. Strategy for treatment of infected diabetic foot ulcers.Acc. Chem. Res.20215451080109310.1021/acs.accounts.0c00864 33596041
     [Google Scholar]
  10. VijayakumarV. SamalS.K. MohantyS. NayakS.K. Recent advancements in biopolymer and metal nanoparticle-based materials in diabetic wound healing management.Int. J. Biol. Macromol.201912213714810.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.10.120 30342131
     [Google Scholar]
  11. WalshJ.W. HoffstadO.J. SullivanM.O. MargolisD.J. Association of diabetic foot ulcer and death in a population‐based cohort from the United Kingdom.Diabet. Med.201633111493149810.1111/dme.13054 26666583
     [Google Scholar]
  12. WangX. YuanC.X. XuB. YuZ. Diabetic foot ulcers: Classification, risk factors and management.World J. Diabetes202213121049106510.4239/wjd.v13.i12.1049 36578871
     [Google Scholar]
  13. SharifiradG. ShojaezadehD. TavasoliE. AzadbakhtL. TolA. Socio-economic factors and diabetes consequences among patients with type 2 diabetes.J. Educ. Health Promot.2013211210.4103/2277‑9531.108009 24083262
     [Google Scholar]
  14. PitoccoD. TesauroM. AlessandroR. GhirlandaG. CardilloC. Oxidative stress in diabetes: Implications for vascular and other complications.Int. J. Mol. Sci.20131411215252155010.3390/ijms141121525 24177571
     [Google Scholar]
  15. ShawJ.E. ZimmetP. The epidemiology of diabetic neuropathy.Diabetes Rev. 199974245252
     [Google Scholar]
  16. ArmstrongD.G. WrobelJ. RobbinsJ.M. Guest Editorial: Are diabetes‐related wounds and amputations worse than cancer?Int. Wound J.20074428628710.1111/j.1742‑481X.2007.00392.x 18154621
     [Google Scholar]
  17. AguilaD.M.A. ReiberG.E. KoepsellT.D. How does provider and patient awareness of high-risk status for lower-extremity amputation influence foot-care practice?Diabetes Care19941791050105410.2337/diacare.17.9.1050 7988305
     [Google Scholar]
  18. ChaoC.Y.L. CheingG.L.Y. Microvascular dysfunction in diabetic foot disease and ulceration.Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.200925760461410.1002/dmrr.1004 19681035
     [Google Scholar]
  19. GershaterM.A. LöndahlM. NybergP. Complexity of factors related to outcome of neuropathic and neuroischaemic/ischaemic diabetic foot ulcers: A cohort study.Diabetologia200952339840710.1007/s00125‑008‑1226‑2 19037626
     [Google Scholar]
  20. BoultonA.J.M. KirsnerR.S. VileikyteL. Clinical practice. Neuropathic diabetic foot ulcers.N. Engl. J. Med.20043511485510.1056/NEJMcp032966 15229307
     [Google Scholar]
  21. LoGerfoF.W. CoffmanJ.D. Current concepts. Vascular and microvascular disease of the foot in diabetes. Implications for foot care.N. Engl. J. Med.1984311251615161910.1056/NEJM198412203112506 6390204
     [Google Scholar]
  22. MehrajD.M. A review of Wagner classification and current concepts in management of diabetic foot.Int J Orthopaedics Sci201841n93393510.22271/ortho.2018.v4.i1n.133
     [Google Scholar]
  23. ShigematsuK. Surgical management of the diabetic foot.Clin. Calcium200313911791184
     [Google Scholar]
  24. WagnerF.W.Jr The dysvascular foot: A system for diagnosis and treatment.Foot Ankle1981226412210.1177/107110078100200202 7319435
     [Google Scholar]
  25. ZubairM. Diabetic foot ulcer: A review.American J Int Med2015322810.11648/j.ajim.20150302.11
     [Google Scholar]
  26. KhanY. KhanM.M. FarooquiM. Diabetic foot ulcers: A review of current management.Int. J. Res. Med. Sci.2017511468310.18203/2320‑6012.ijrms20174916
     [Google Scholar]
  27. RobinsonA.H.N. PasapulaC. BrodskyJ.W. Surgical aspects of the diabetic foot.J. Bone Joint Surg. Br.200991-B11710.1302/0301‑620X.91B1.21196 19091997
     [Google Scholar]
  28. SantemaT.B. LenselinkE.A. BalmR. UbbinkD.T. Comparing the Meggitt‐Wagner and the University of Texas wound classification systems for diabetic foot ulcers: Inter‐observer analyses.Int. Wound J.20161361137114110.1111/iwj.12429 25720543
     [Google Scholar]
  29. LaveryL.A. ArmstrongD.G. HarklessL.B. Classification of diabetic foot wounds.J. Foot Ankle Surg.199635652853110.1016/S1067‑2516(96)80125‑6 8986890
     [Google Scholar]
  30. OyiboS.O. JudeE.B. TarawnehI. NguyenH.C. HarklessL.B. BoultonA.J.M. A comparison of two diabetic foot ulcer classification systems: The Wagner and the University of Texas wound classification systems.Diabetes Care2001241848810.2337/diacare.24.1.84 11194247
     [Google Scholar]
  31. JainA. JoshiS. Diabetic Foot Classifications: Review of Literature.Med. Sci.20132371510.5455/medscience.2013.02.8069
     [Google Scholar]
  32. ChastainC.A. KlopfensteinN. SerezaniC.H. AronoffD.M. A clinical review of diabetic foot infections.Clin. Podiatr. Med. Surg.201936338139510.1016/j.cpm.2019.02.004 31079605
     [Google Scholar]
  33. BanuA. HassanM.M.N. RajkumarJ. SrinivasaS. Spectrum of bacteria associated with diabetic foot ulcer and biofilm formation: A prospective study.Australas. Med. J.20158928028510.4066/AMJ.2015.2422 26464584
     [Google Scholar]
  34. LaveryL.A. ArmstrongD.G. WunderlichR.P. MohlerM.J. WendelC.S. LipskyB.A. Risk factors for foot infections in individuals with diabetes.Diabetes Care20062961288129310.2337/dc05‑2425 16732010
     [Google Scholar]
  35. RubeaanA.K. DerwishA.M. OuiziS. Diabetic foot complications and their risk factors from a large retrospective cohort study.PLoS One2015105e012444610.1371/journal.pone.0124446 25946144
     [Google Scholar]
  36. NdosiM. HughesW.A. BrownS. Prognosis of the infected diabetic foot ulcer: A 12‐month prospective observational study.Diabet. Med.2018351788810.1111/dme.13537 29083500
     [Google Scholar]
  37. LipskyB.A. BerendtA.R. CorniaP.B. Infectious Diseases Society of America clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot infections.Clin. Infect. Dis.20125412e132e17310.1093/cid/cis346 22619242
     [Google Scholar]
  38. BaderMS Diabetic foot infection.Available from: https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2008/0701/p71.html
    [Google Scholar]
  39. ShettigarS. ShenoyS. SevithaS. RaoP. Microbiological profile of deep tissue and bone tissue in diabetic foot osteomyelitis.J. Clin. Diagn. Res.2018126DC20DC2210.7860/JCDR/2018/35462.11597
     [Google Scholar]
  40. AbdulrazakA. BitarI.Z. Al-ShamaliA.A. MobasherA.L. Bacteriological study of diabetic foot infections.J Diabetes Compl200519313814110.1016/j.jdiacomp.2004.06.001 15866058
     [Google Scholar]
  41. CharlesP.G.P. UçkayI. KressmannB. EmonetS. LipskyB.A. The role of anaerobes in diabetic foot infections.Anaerobe20153481310.1016/j.anaerobe.2015.03.009 25841893
     [Google Scholar]
  42. GerdingD.N. Foot infections in diabetic patients: The role of anaerobes.Clin. Infect. Dis.199520S2S283S28810.1093/clinids/20.Supplement_2.S283 7548576
     [Google Scholar]
  43. PendletonJ.N. GormanS.P. GilmoreB.F. Clinical relevance of the ESKAPE pathogens.Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther.201311329730810.1586/eri.13.12 23458769
     [Google Scholar]
  44. RastogiA. SukumarS. HajelaA. The microbiology of diabetic foot infections in patients recently treated with antibiotic therapy: A prospective study from India.J. Diabetes Complications201731240741210.1016/j.jdiacomp.2016.11.001 27894749
     [Google Scholar]
  45. ManikandanC AmsathA Antibiotic susceptibility of bacterial strains isolated from wound infection patients in Pattukkottai , Tamilnadu, India. Available from:https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Antibiotic-susceptibility-of-bacterial-strains-from-Manikandan-Amsath/845cd719476ee8ec5cca28e086969ad5cf2f407c
  46. GadepalliR. DhawanB. SreenivasV. KapilA. AmminiA.C. ChaudhryR. A clinico-microbiological study of diabetic foot ulcers in an Indian tertiary care hospital.Diabetes Care20062981727173210.2337/dc06‑0116 16873771
     [Google Scholar]
  47. HenigO. PogueJ.M. MartinE. The impact of Multidrug-Resistant organisms on outcomes in patients with diabetic foot infections.Open Forum Infect. Dis.202075ofaa16110.1093/ofid/ofaa161 32500092
     [Google Scholar]
  48. DangC.N. PrasadY.D.M. BoultonA.J.M. JudeE.B. Methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the diabetic foot clinic: A worsening problem.Diabet. Med.200320215916110.1046/j.1464‑5491.2003.00860.x 12581269
     [Google Scholar]
  49. ShahiS.K. KumarA. Isolation and Genetic Analysis of Multidrug Resistant Bacteria from Diabetic Foot Ulcers.Front. Microbiol.20166146410.3389/fmicb.2015.01464 26779134
     [Google Scholar]
  50. ShaheenM.M.A. DahabA.S. FadaA.M. IdieisR. Isolation and characterization of bacteria from diabetic foot ulcer: Amputation, antibiotic resistance and mortality rate.Int. J. Diabetes Dev. Ctries.202242352953710.1007/s13410‑021‑00997‑7 34522073
     [Google Scholar]
  51. AtlawA. KebedeH.B. AbdelaA.A. WoldeamanuelY. Bacterial isolates from diabetic foot ulcers and their antimicrobial resistance profile from selected hospitals in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.Front. Endocrinol.20221398748710.3389/fendo.2022.987487 36120451
     [Google Scholar]
  52. ZubairM. MalikA. AhmadJ. Clinico-microbiological study and antimicrobial drug resistance profile of diabetic foot infections in North India.Foot201121161410.1016/j.foot.2010.10.003 21130641
     [Google Scholar]
  53. RathnayakeA. SabooA. MalabuU.H. FalhammarH. Lower extremity amputations and long-term outcomes in diabetic foot ulcers: A systematic review.World J. Diabetes202011939139910.4239/wjd.v11.i9.391 32994867
     [Google Scholar]
  54. SeamanS. The role of the nurse specialist in the care of patients with diabetic foot ulcers.Foot Ankle Int.2005261192610.1177/107110070502600104 15680114
     [Google Scholar]
  55. MusuuzaJ. SutherlandB.L. KurterS. BalasubramanianP. BartelsC.M. BrennanM.B. A systematic review of multidisciplinary teams to reduce major amputations for patients with diabetic foot ulcers.J. Vasc. Surg.202071414331446.e310.1016/j.jvs.2019.08.244 31676181
     [Google Scholar]
  56. HasanR FirwanaB ElraiyahT A systematic review and meta-analysis of glycemic control for the prevention of diabetic foot syndrome. J Vasc Surg 2016; 63(2): 22S-28S.e2.10.1016/j.jvs.2015.10.005
  57. PatilM.D. GunasekaranU. FontaineJ.L. MeneghiniL. Does improving glycemic control accelerate healing of diabetic foot ulcers?Diabetes201867S12218-PUB10.2337/db18‑2218‑PUB
     [Google Scholar]
  58. AyalaT.M.Á. RojasG.A. Association between peripheral arterial disease and diabetic foot ulcers in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2.Medicina Universitaria2017197612312610.1016/j.rmu.2017.07.002
     [Google Scholar]
  59. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9742977
  60. MarsoS.P. HiattW.R. Peripheral arterial disease in patients with diabetes.J. Am. Coll. Cardiol.200647592192910.1016/j.jacc.2005.09.065 16516072
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Addendum 11. Microvascular Complications and Foot Care: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes.Diabetes Care202144S1S151S16710.2337/dc21‑ad09b 34135018
     [Google Scholar]
  62. SchaperN.C. AndrosG. ApelqvistJ. Specific guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of peripheral arterial disease in a patient with diabetes and ulceration of the foot 2011.Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.201228S123623710.1002/dmrr.2252 22271745
     [Google Scholar]
  63. SchaperN.C. AndrosG. ApelqvistJ. Diagnosis and treatment of peripheral arterial disease in diabetic patients with a foot ulcer. A progress report of the International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot.Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.201228S121822410.1002/dmrr.2255 22271741
     [Google Scholar]
  64. BoultonA. ArmstrongD. KrisnerR. Diagnosis and management of diabetic foot complications.ADA Clinical Compendia20182018212010.2337/db20182‑1 30958663
     [Google Scholar]
  65. GuthrieH. ClasperJ. Historical origins and current concepts of wound debridement.J. R. Army Med. Corps2011157213013210.1136/jramc‑157‑02‑01 21805760
     [Google Scholar]
  66. AttingerCE DučićI ZelenCM The use of local muscle flaps in foot and ankle reconstruction. Elsevier eBooks 2012; pp. 269-88.10.1016/B978‑0‑7020‑3136‑6.00023‑0
     [Google Scholar]
  67. LipskyB.A. SánchezA.J. DiggleM. IWGDF guidance on the diagnosis and management of foot infections in persons with diabetes.Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.201632S1457410.1002/dmrr.2699 26386266
     [Google Scholar]
  68. SánchezA.J. MartínezL.L.J. DuqueP.J. MaynarM. From the diabetic foot ulcer and beyond: How do foot infections spread in patients with diabetes?Diabet. Foot Ankle2012311869310.3402/dfa.v3i0.18693 23050067
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Diabetes-Related Foot InfectionsDiagnosis and treatment.Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34652105/
    [Google Scholar]
  70. PereiraS.G. MouraJ. CarvalhoE. EmpadinhasN. Microbiota of Chronic Diabetic Wounds: Ecology, Impact, and Potential for Innovative Treatment Strategies.Front. Microbiol.20178179110.3389/fmicb.2017.01791 28983285
     [Google Scholar]
  71. SennevilleÉ. AlbalawiZ. van AstenS.A. IWGDF/IDSA Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Diabetes-related Foot Infections (IWGDF/IDSA 2023).Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.2024403e368710.1093/cid/ciad527 37779457
     [Google Scholar]
  72. LaveryL.A. FontaineJ.L. BhavanK. KimP.J. WilliamsJ.R. HuntN.A. Risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in diabetic foot infections.Diabet. Foot Ankle2014512357510.3402/dfa.v5.23575 24765246
     [Google Scholar]
  73. EliasB. Diabetic Foot Infections: An Update on Treatment.US Pharm.20133842326Available from : https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/diabetic-foot-infections-anupdate-on-treatment
    [Google Scholar]
  74. TayebK. Managing infection: A holistic approach. J Wound Care 2015; 24(S5b): 20-30.10.12968/jowc.2015.24.Sup5b.20
  75. LipskyB.A. HiattH.I. HolroydK.J. Results and prognostic value of Gram stain of tissue curettage specimens of infected diabetic foot ulcers [abstract 145]In: Proceedings of the 37th annual meeting of the Infectious Diseases Society of AmericaAlexandria, VA: Infectious Diseases Society of America1999
     [Google Scholar]
  76. TentolourisN. PetrikkosG. VallianouN. Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in infected and uninfected diabetic foot ulcers.Clin. Microbiol. Infect.200612218618910.1111/j.1469‑0691.2005.01279.x 16441460
     [Google Scholar]
  77. LipskyB.A. Medical treatment of diabetic foot infections.Clin. Infect. Dis.200439S2S104S11410.1086/383271 15306988
     [Google Scholar]
  78. ArmstrongD.G. LipskyB.A. Diabetic foot infections: Stepwise medical and surgical management.Int. Wound J.20041212313210.1111/j.1742‑4801.2004.00035.x 16722884
     [Google Scholar]
  79. SelvaA. SolàI. NavaB.L.A. GianneoO.D. CospX.B. LipskyB.A. Systemic antibiotics for treating diabetic foot infections.Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.201520159CD00906110.1002/14651858.CD009061.pub2
     [Google Scholar]
  80. RobertsA.D. SimonG.L. Diabetic foot infections: The role of microbiology and antibiotic treatment.Semin. Vasc. Surg.2012252758110.1053/j.semvascsurg.2012.04.010 22817856
     [Google Scholar]
  81. PeszynskaM.J. SassM. SchipperS. Pharmacokinetics and penetration of moxifloxacin into infected diabetic foot tissue in a large diabetic patient cohort.Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.201167213514210.1007/s00228‑010‑0903‑5 20871984
     [Google Scholar]
  82. ChapmanA.L.N. DixonS. AndrewsD. LillieP.J. BazazR. PatchettJ.D. Clinical efficacy and cost-effectiveness of outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy (OPAT): A UK perspective.J. Antimicrob. Chemother.20096461316132410.1093/jac/dkp343 19767623
     [Google Scholar]
  83. MarvasoA. EspositoS. NovielloS. PetronellaP. Outpatient Parenteral Antibiotic Therapy (OPAT) of diabetic foot infections with piperacillin/tazobactam.Infez. Med.2002104230235
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Kucers’ The Use of Antibiotics Sixth EditionAvailable from: https://www.amazon.com/Kucers-Use-Antibiotics-Sixth-Antibacterial/dp/0340927674
  85. TasciniC. PiaggesiA. TagliaferriE. Microbiology at first visit of moderate-to-severe diabetic foot infection with antimicrobial activity and a survey of quinolone monotherapy.Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract.201194113313910.1016/j.diabres.2011.07.017 21824673
     [Google Scholar]
  86. LipskyB.A. HoeyC. Topical antimicrobial therapy for treating chronic wounds.Clin. Infect. Dis.200949101541154910.1086/644732 19842981
     [Google Scholar]
  87. GottrupF. ApelqvistJ. BjarnsholtT. EWMA Document: Antimicrobials and Non-healing Wounds: Evidence, controversies and suggestions.J. Wound Care201322S5S1S8910.12968/jowc.2013.22.Sup5.S1
     [Google Scholar]
  88. LipskyB.A. HolroydK.J. ZasloffM. Topical versus systemic antimicrobial therapy for treating mildly infected diabetic foot ulcers: A randomized, controlled, double-blinded, multicenter trial of pexiganan cream.Clin. Infect. Dis.200847121537154510.1086/593185 18990064
     [Google Scholar]
  89. WangC.L. CohanR.H. EllisJ.H. CaoiliE.M. WangG. FrancisI.R. Frequency, outcome, and appropriateness of treatment of nonionic iodinated contrast media reactions.AJR Am. J. Roentgenol.2008191240941510.2214/AJR.07.3421 18647910
     [Google Scholar]
  90. BoultonA.J.M. RaymanG. WukichD.K. The foot in diabetes.John Wiley & Sons202010.1002/9781119445821
     [Google Scholar]
  91. ShelegA.E. KeidarZ. Diabetic foot infection: The role of PET/CT imaging.Curr. Pharm. Des.201824121277128610.2174/1381612824666180227095439 29484984
     [Google Scholar]
  92. SureshK KumarA. Assessment of Diabetic Foot through the Developmental Stages of Lower Limb Abnormalities Using Ultrasound.IntechOpen eBooks 2020.10.5772/intechopen.92431
     [Google Scholar]
  93. DyetJ.F. NicholsonA.A. EttlesD.F.E. Vascular imaging and intervention in peripheral arteries in the diabetic patient.Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev.200016S1S16S2210.1002/1520‑7560(200009/10)16:1+<:AID‑DMRR131>3.0.CO;2‑W 11054882
     [Google Scholar]
  94. PalestroC.J. LoveC. Nuclear medicine and diabetic foot infections.Semin. Nucl. Med.2009391526510.1053/j.semnuclmed.2008.08.006 19038600
     [Google Scholar]
  95. MartínJ. SaleemN. 18F-FDG PET-CT scanning and diabetic patients.Nucl. Med. Commun.201435121197120310.1097/MNM.0000000000000197 25211626
     [Google Scholar]
  96. LowK.T. PehW.C. Magnetic resonance imaging of diabetic foot complications.Singapore Med. J.2015561233410.11622/smedj.2015006 25640096
     [Google Scholar]
  97. UçkayI. SánchezA.J. LewD. LipskyB.A. Diabetic foot infections: What have we learned in the last 30 years?Int. J. Infect. Dis.201540819110.1016/j.ijid.2015.09.023 26460089
     [Google Scholar]
  98. AnkrahA.O. KleinH.C. ElsingaP.H. New imaging tracers for the infected diabetic foot (Nuclear and Optical Imaging).Curr. Pharm. Des.201824121287130310.2174/1381612824666180227094454 29484983
     [Google Scholar]
  99. LambrechtF.Y. Evaluation of 99mTc-labeled antibiotics for infection detection.Ann. Nucl. Med.20112511610.1007/s12149‑010‑0417‑3 20927661
     [Google Scholar]
  100. DuttaP. BhansaliA. MittalB.R. SinghB. MasoodiS.R. Instant 99mTc-ciprofloxacin scintigraphy for the diagnosis of osteomyelitis in the diabetic foot.Foot Ankle Int.200627971672210.1177/107110070602700911 17038284
     [Google Scholar]
  101. SellmyerM.A. LeeI. HouC. Bacterial infection imaging with [18F]fluoropropyl-trimethoprim.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2017114318372837710.1073/pnas.1703109114 28716936
     [Google Scholar]
  102. FerreiraI.M. LacerdaS.C.M. dos SantosS.R. Detection of bacterial infection by a technetium-99m-labeled peptidoglycan aptamer.Biomed. Pharmacother.20179393193810.1016/j.biopha.2017.07.017 28715874
     [Google Scholar]
  103. van OostenM. SchäferT. GazendamJ.A.C. Real-time in vivo imaging of invasive- and biomaterial-associated bacterial infections using fluorescently labelled vancomycin.Nat. Commun.201341258410.1038/ncomms3584 24129412
     [Google Scholar]
  104. RubitschungK. SherwoodA. CrisologoA.P. Pathophysiology and molecular imaging of diabetic foot infections.Int. J. Mol. Sci.202122211155210.3390/ijms222111552 34768982
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/cdr/10.2174/0115733998287694240514110935
Loading
Deciphering Diabetic Foot Wounds: A Comprehensive Review on Classification, Multidrug Resistance, Microbial Insights, Management & Treatment Strategies, and Advanced Diagnostic Tools
Curr. Diabetes Rev. 21, E240524230296 (2025); https://doi.org/10.2174/0115733998287694240514110935
/content/journals/cdr/10.2174/0115733998287694240514110935
/content/journals/cdr/10.2174/0115733998287694240514110935
Loading

Data & Media loading...


  • Article Type:     Review Article
Keyword(s): anaerobes; antibiotic therapy; Diabetes; diabetic foot infections; diabetic foot ulcer; multidrug resistance; wound care

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error
Please enter a valid_number test